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Introduction
An enamel fracture occurs when the outer layer of the tooth, known as enamel, is fractured without directly impacting the underlying dentine and pulp. This phenomenon typically arises from external forces impacting the tooth to induce enamel breakage. These fractures are often characterised by irregular breaks on the occlusal surface, in contrast to the smoother surfaces associated with typical tooth degradation. Enamel fractures can vary in severity, ranging from minor cosmetic issues to more significant structural problems. An enamel fracture typically doesn’t cause any noticeable symptoms such as tenderness or an increase in mobility. However, if sensitivity and mobility are present, it may indicate an enamel-dentine fracture, with the dentine being exposed.

Causes/Aetiology
Enamel fractures commonly result from direct impacts to the tooth, often occurring due to a variety of accidents. These accidents encompass a broad spectrum of situations, including sports-related injuries, cycling mishaps, motor vehicle collisions, and physical altercations. Notably, falls stand out as a major factor, responsible for a significant 65% of dental trauma cases. The severity of the damage inflicted on the tooth correlates directly with the energy, magnitude, shape, and direction of the impacting force.

Enamel fractures can also arise from malocclusion which is when the teeth do not align properly as they should. This can result in excessive pressure on some areas of the teeth, particularly during chewing or grinding, which increases the risk of enamel fractures occurring.

Classifications
Various terms and classifications are used to differentiate types of tooth fractures; however, a limited number applies exclusively to enamel fractures. This limitation arrives from the sole effect on the outer tooth layer in enamel fractures, independent from the underlying dentine or pulp.

According to the Ellis Classification System for Enamel Fractures, a fracture involving only the enamel is categorised as a Class I fracture. Class I fractures can be further described as either vertical or horizontal, and as complete or incomplete. Patients affected by such fractures do not typically experience pain in response to temperature, air, or tapping (percussion) on the fractured tooth.

The term “craze lines” is also used to describe minute cracks exclusive to the enamel surface.

Diagnosis
Early detection plays a pivotal role in curbing fracture progression. Various diagnostic techniques are available to localise and assess fracture planes, including clinical examinations, transillumination and bite tests. Moreover, recent advancements in diagnostic methods, such as optical coherence tomography (OCT) and near-infrared imaging, offer potential diagnostic tools for improved detection and evaluation.

1. Clinical examination
Clinical examination with visual inspections can help dentists localise potential defects in the tooth. Magnifying loupes might be required for enhanced visualisation. Limitations include the limited accessibility to severity and depth of fracture planes. Old restorations and staining are advised to be removed for clearer visualisation. additionally, the dentist may test for pain on percussion or palpation. This may include sensibility testing, such as electrical pulp testing or thermal testing. IADT

2. Transillumination
Transillumination aids in locating the fracture plane by diffracting light from the LED light source. Studies have suggested using yellow or orange light may enhance diagnostic accuracy. It is advised to remove former restorations before assessment and diagnosis. Recent advances in transillumination including infrared laser technology have been proposed by recent studies, highlighting the ability of targeting in fracture diagnosis.

Recent Advances and potential diagnostic tools
The following technology is still being researched and is not available for general practice.

Optical coherence tomography
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive and non-destructive imaging technology. It uses infrared light waves to provide high-resolution images of internal structure. Studies have suggested swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) as a potential diagnostic tool, given the high image -producing speed and the high sensitivity in detecting fracture planes and caries within the enamel layer.

Treatment
In cases of a simple crown fracture, the recommended approach is to reattach the broken tooth fragment, if it is possible. Following reattachment, smoothing of the edges is undertaken. Depending on the extent of the fractured portion, a choice is made between a glass ionomer or permanent restoration to cover the exposed dentine, ensuring structural integrity and aesthetics.

Subsequent to this incident, it is strongly advised to schedule follow-up clinical and radiographic evaluations. These should occur initially after two months and subsequently annually following the injury. These examinations are crucial for assessing the condition of any restorations carried out and detecting any potential complications, including pulp necrosis, which represents an extreme outcome of an enamel fracture characterized by the death of the tooth pulp. Early detection and intervention are pivotal in ensuring optimal outcomes and maintaining oral health following dental trauma.