User:Deputygirl/sandbox



Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) - more commonly known as trash or garbage - consists of everyday items we use and then throw away, such as product packaging, grass clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps and papers. In 2010, Americans generated about 250 million tons of trash. In the United States, landfills are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the state's environmental agency. Municipal solid waste landfills (MSWLF) must be designed to protect the environment from contaminants which may be present in the solid waste stream.

Some materials may be banned from disposal in municipal solid waste landfills including common household items such as paints, cleaners/chemicals, motor oil, batteries, and pesticides. These products, if mishandled, can be dangerous to health and the environment. Safe management of solid waste through guidance, technical assistance, regulations, permitting, environmental monitoring, compliance evaluation and enforcement is the goal of the EPA and state environmental agencies.

History
The Fresno Municipal Sanitary Landfill, opened in Fresno, California in 1937, is considered to have been the first modern, sanitary landfill in the United States, innovating the techniques of trenching, compacting, and the daily covering of waste with soil. It has been designated a National Historic Landmark, underlining the significance of waste disposal in urban society.

The first federal legislation addressing solid waste management was the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 (SWDA) that created a national office of solid waste. By the mid-1970s, all states had some type of solid waste management regulations. In 1976, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) that dramatically expanded the federal government's role in managing waste disposal. RCRA divided wastes into hazardous and non-hazardous categories, and directed the EPA to develop design and operational standards for sanitary landfills and close or upgrade existing open dumps that did not meet the sanitary landfill standards.

In 1979, the EPA developed criteria for sanitary landfills that included siting restrictions in floodplains; endangered species protection; surface water protection; groundwater protection; disease and vector (rodents, birds, insects) control; opening burning prohibitions; explosive gas (methane) control; fire prevention through the use of cover materials; and prevention of bird hazards to aircraft.

The RCRA was amended in 1984. In 1991, the EPA established new federal standards for municipal solid waste landfills that updated location and operation standards, added design standards, groundwater monitoring requirements, corrective action requirements for known environmental releases, closure and post-closure requirements and financial assurances to pay for landfill future care and maintenance.

Regulation
The EPA generally relies on the states to enforce their own operating permits and federal laws. If state agencies are not aggressive, violations can worsen, multiplying negative environmental impacts exponentially. There are some notable recorded violations in the U.S. such as for a landfill in Hawaii that was fined $2.8 million in 2006 for operating violations, but this is not common.

Modern landfills are specifically designed to protect human health and the environment by controlling water and air emissions. All MSWLF must comply with the federal regulations in 40 CFR Part 258, or equivalent state regulations. Some of the federal regulations in 40 CFR part 258 include:
 * Location Restrictions - landfills must be built in suitable geological areas away from faults, wetlands, flood plains or other restricted areas.
 * Composite Liners Requirements - include a flexible membrane (geomembrane)overlaying two feet of compacted clay soil lining the bottom and sides of the landfill, protect groundwater and the underlying soil from leachate releases.
 * Leachate Collection and Removal Systems - sit on top of the composite liner and removes leachate from the landfill for treatment and disposal.
 * Operating Practices - including the compacting and covering of waste frequently with several inches of soil to help reduce odor; control litter, insects and rodents; and protect public health.
 * Groundwater Monitoring Requirements - testing of groundwater wells must be done to determine whether waste materials have escaped from the landfill.
 * Closure and Postclosure Care Requirements - including covering landfills and providing long-term care of closed landfills.
 * Corrective Action Provisions - control and clean up of landfill releases and achieves groundwater protection standards.
 * Financial Assurance - provides funding for environmental protection during and after landfill closure.

Under Subtitle D of RCRA, states are required to adopt and implement permit programs to ensure that landfills in their states comply with relevant federal standards. The law also requires EPA to determine whether state permit programs are adequate to ensure such compliance. For permit programs to be approved, states must provide opportunities for public involvement during the permit application process. This may include public meetings or submission of concerns in writing to the permitting agency. In addition, states must have the power to issue permits and perform compliance monitoring and enforcement actions that ensure compliance with the federal standards.

Agencies such as the Solid Waste Association of North America's (SWANA) Landfill Management Division provide training and technical advice related to the planning, design, construction, closure and post-closure of today's landfills. The division regularly monitors, reviews and comments on current legislative and regulatory actions that could potentially affect landfill operations and new technology. Waste Management, based in Houston, Texas, manages/operates five of the top 10 largest landfills and owns three of those outright. [Forbes]

Leachate Collection
Landfill leachate is generated from liquids existing in the waste as it enters a landfill or from rainwater that passes through the waste within the facility. The leachate consists of different organic and inorganic compounds that may be either dissolved or suspended. An important part of maintaining a landfill is managing the leachate through proper treatment methods designed to prevent pollution into surrounding ground and surface waters. Based on recent EPA studies, a liner and leachate collection system constructed to current standards typically has a liquid removal efficiency of 99 to 100 percent and frequently exceeds 99.99 percent.

The leachate collection system collects the leachate so that it can be removed from the landfill and properly treated or disposed. Most leachate collection systems have the following components:
 * Leachate collection layer - a layer of sand or gravel or a thick plastic mesh called a geonet collects leachate and allows it to drain by gravity to the leachate collection pipe system.
 * Filter Geotextile - a geotextile fabric, similar in appearance to felt, may be located at the top of the leachate collection pipe system to provide preparation of solid particles from liquid. This prevents clogging of the pipe system.
 * Leachate Collection Pipe System - Perforated pipes, surrounded by a bed of gravel, transport collected leachate to specially designed low points called sumps. Pumps, located within the sumps, automatically remove the leachate from the landfill and transport it the the leachate management facilities for treatment or another proper method of disposal.

Federal requirements mandate that treatment must meet drinking water quality standards, which are set to prevent harm to public health, or more stringent state standards to protect sensitive environments (high quality streams, trout streams).

Groundwater Monitoring
Nearly all municipal solid waste landfills (MSWLFs) are required to monitor the underlying groundwater for contamination during their active life and post-closure care period. The exceptions to this requirement are small landfills that receive less than 20 tons of solid waste per day, and facilities that can demonstrate that there is no potential for the migration of hazardous constituents from the unit into the groundwater. All other MSWLFs must comply with the groundwater monitoring requirements found at 40 CFR Part 258, Subpart E–Ground-Water Monitoring and Corrective Action.

The groundwater monitoring system consists of a series of wells placed upgradient and downgradient of the MSWLF. The samples from the upgradient wells shows the background concentrations of constituents in the groundwater while, the downgradient wells show the extent of groundwater contamination caused by the MSWLF. The required number of wells, spacing, and depth of wells is determined on a site-specific basis based on the aquifier thickness, groundwater flow rate and direction, and the other geologic and hydrogeologic characteristics of the site. All groundwater monitoring systems must be certified by a qualified groundwater scientist and must comply with the sampling and analytical procedures outlined in the regulations.

There are three phases of groundwater monitoring requirements:
 * Detection Monitoring - monitoring for the 62 constituents listed in Appendix I of 40 CFR Part 258 and sampling that occurs at least semiannually throughout the landfill's active life and post-closure period. If the any of the consituents is detected at a higher level than the established background level, state regulatory agencies must be notified and an assessment monitoring program begun.
 * Assessment monitoring - within 90 days of detection of an increase in constituents, a MSWLF must begin an assessment monitoring program. Samples must be taken from all wells and analyzed for the presence of all 214 constituents listed in Appendix II of 40 CFR Part 258. If any of the constituents are detected, background levels for these constituents and establish a groundwater protection standard (GWPS) for each.  Within 90 days of establishing the background levels and GWPS, resamples for all constituents in Appendix I and Appendix II.  Resampling must then be completed at least semiannually.  Provided that levels remain within specified limits after two sampling events, the facility may return to the detection monitoring phase. If levels remain higher than standard, the owners/operators of the MSWLF must characterize the nature of the release, determine if contamination has migrated beyond the facility boundary, and begin assessing corrective measures.
 * Corrective measures - must be protective of human health and the environment, meet the GWPS, control the source(s) of the release to prevent further releases, and manage any solid waste generated in accordance with all applicable RCRA regulations. Remedial actions must continue until three years of consecutive compliance are met.



Post-closure and Reclamation
In the U.S., the regulatory structure for landfills specifies a 30-year post-closure monitoring period. It is presumed that at the end of the 30-year period, the landfill will be stable and will no longer require intensive monitoring. Today, landfills are designed from the start to ensure protection of the environment and public health, and the safe and productive use of the site after closure.

There are three categories of post-closure uses of landfill sites: Category 1 - open space, agricultural and passive recreation;  Category 2 - Active recreation, parking or industrial/commercial activities; and Category 3 - Intensive uses such as residences, industry and commercial development.

Category 1 post-closures are the most numerous and may be the least recognizable due to the fact they appear to be nothing more than an open field. Some examples include: Westview Sanitary Landfill in Georgia - now a cemetary and Griffith Park in California - used for hiking trails.

Category 2 post-clsoures may have utilities, light structures or paving. Examples include Settler's Hill Landfill in Illinois - now golf courses and a minor league baseball field or the Germantown Sanitary Landfill in Wisconsin that is now a ski slope.

Category 3 post-closures are usually characterized by inclusion of major structures. Some of the most well known are Mile High Stadium in Colorado which is the football staduim for the Denver Broncos; Brickyard Shopping Center in Illinois; and Columbia Point in Massachusetts, home of the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, and University of Massachusetts State Archives Building.

Statistics
The EPA has collected and reported data on the generation and disposal of waste in the United States for more than 30 years.

As of 2010, Total MSW generation was 250 million tons. Organic materials continue to be the largest component of MSW. Paper and paperboard account for 29% and yard trimmings and food scraps account for another 27%; plastics 12%; metals 9%, rubber, leather and textiles 8%; wood is approximately 6.4% and glass 5%. Other miscellaneous wastes make up approximately 3.4%.

In 2010, Americans recovered almost 65 million tons of MSW (excluding composting) through recycling.

Disposal of waste to a landfill has decreased from 89 percent of the amount generated in 1980 to about 54 percent of MSW in 2010.

Research has shown that leachate treatment facilities at modern landfills are capable of removing 100 percent of the trace organics and over 85 percent of the heavy metals.

The Puente Hills Landfill is the largest rubbish dump in America. Over 150 meters of garbage has risen from the ground since the area became a designated dumping site in 1957.

In 1986, there were 7,683 dumps in the United States. By 2009, there were just 1,908 landfills nationwide: a 75 percent decline in disposal facilities in less than 25 years.

List of notable landfills

 * Agriculture Street Landfill
 * Canal Area, San Rafael, California
 * Carleton Farms Landfill
 * Fountain Avenue (Brooklyn, New York)
 * Frank R. Bowerman Landfill
 * Fresh Kills Landfill
 * Hercules 009 Landfill
 * Junipero Serra Landfill
 * Kin-Buc Landfill
 * Laurel Park Incorporated
 * Love Canal
 * Munisport
 * Olinda Landfill
 * Pfohl Brothers Landfill
 * Puente Hills Landfill
 * Randolph Farms Landfill
 * Rolling Knolls Landfill
 * Rumpke Sanitary Landfill
 * Seneca Meadows Landfill
 * Shoreline Park, Mountain View
 * Socrates Sculpture Park
 * Toyon Canyon Landfill
 * Warren County PCB Landfill