User:Dfee2/Sexual capital

= Sexual Capital =

Economic
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Another definition, comes from Capital Portfolio Theory, in which Green argues that sexual capital is part of an individual's overall capital portfolio. An individual can transfer their sexual capital to other forms of capital within Capital Portfolio Theory. From an economic perspective, having high sexual capital is advantageous, since it can help an individual. For example, multiple studies have shown that increased physical attractiveness is correlated with higher incomes after eliminating other factors.

Race
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Culture
Idealized traits can vary greatly between cultures, although there are a few beauty standards that are almost universal. Facial symmetry, for example, is a physically-desirable characteristic that is near universal. However, many physical characteristics, like height and weight have different ideals based on an individual's culture. Not having a culture's desired physical traits can lead to a loss of sexual capital, which would likely decrease an individual's overall capital portfolio. This phenomenon is especially apparent when individuals relocate to an area with different beauty ideals, as there may be a large change in an individual's sexual capital.

Religion
Sexual capital can be present in both secular and religious settings. Wiley has shown that in an Evangelical youth group, sexual and erotic capital still play a role in partner selection. Young adults often find a romantic interest in their church groups, often by choosing a partner who has  sought-after traits, or a desirable personal capital portfolio. Within the Evangelical youth groups studied, sexual capital was displayed as virginal capital, in which an individual was considered more romantically desirable by the group when they had not engaged in sexual activity. Additionally, some studies point out how adolescents may reduce their religious involvement around their sexual debut. Pentecostal adolescents in Cape Town were shown to reduce their church attendance in early adulthood, with some resuming their previous attendance after finding a long-term partner. These studies show some of the effects of religion on influencing sexual behavior norms of a community. While limited studies have been conducted on the effects of sexual and erotic capital within other religious communities, much has been written on how religion has shaped human sexuality.

Class and gender
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Sexuality
Riggs has cited several studies of gay men’s behavior on Grindr, which showed that white users had received more attention on the app than users who did not identify as white in their biographies. Other studies have shown that men who report a taller than average height, a more muscular body, have more traditionally masculine characteristics, and self-identify as white receive more attention from other members than those who lack these characteristics. Receiving more attention on Grindr, measured by taps or messages from other users, has been used by researchers to find the number of individuals who viewed a profile as sexually desirable. This measure could signify higher levels of sexual capital.

Within the lesbian community, gender non-conformity has been thought to increase an individual’s sexual capital. However, the reasons behind this are often the product of society’s views on gender non-conformity and lesbianism. Many butch lesbians may have higher sexual capital within lesbian communities, since they actively subvert gender stereotypes, a trait often celebrated within the community. Conversely, femme lesbians may lack sexual capital in queer spaces. However, feminine presenting queer women may receive sexual capital outside of lesbian communities, particularly among heterosexual men.

Criticism
As sexual capital and related theories by Catherine Hakim have gained public exposure, there has been criticism from several researchers. The arguments have focused largely on how Hakim’s theory disproportionately impact women, even though she considers it a universal theory. Female sexuality varies to a greater extent across culture and socioeconomic status than male sexuality. Women from racial, socioeconomic, sexual, or gender minority groups may face additional pressures in what is considered attractive depending on their environment. Additionally, Hakim’s theory of sexual capital, including the idea that an individual can change their level of capital, is limited through these considerations.

While Hakim argues that sexual capital can be exchanged and modified by an individual, this is only possible for the average person in certain sociopolitical contexts. An individual is bound by their society’s views on sex, sexuality and social norms. In some cases, like in a neoliberal secular society, individuals have a wider freedom of choice in how they present their sexuality and eroticism. Bay-Cheng argues that in neoliberal societies, an individual’s motivation for their behavior, along with the behavior itself, is used to evaluate their sexual capital.