User:Dgriswold605/Sex reassignment surgery

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Gender Reassignement Surgery

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''Sex reassignment surgery, also known as gender affirmation surgery, is a procedure in which a person undergoes a surgical change of their sexual characteristics. This surgery is performed for transgender people who hope to match their sexual characteristics with the gender they identify with. Typically after the procedure these people identify as transsexual.''

''Sex reassignment surgery is a therapy transgender people which is only given upon a psychiatric authorization. Because this procedure is surgical, it is sometimes not classified as a therapy but a biomedical enhancement. This procedure has been scrutinized by many transgender scholars.''

''The procedure has been argued as a welfare non-therapeutic enhancement. "The advantage of the welfarist over the non-therapeutic view of enhancement is that it avoids the problem of “fuzzy borders” between therapy and enhancement and the problem of defining the “normal” or “baseline” level of human functioning to be used for distinguishing enhancements from therapies. The welfarist position, obviously, is a flexible one, not only regarding the nature of biomedical interventions that may be used to increase individual well-being (ranging from therapies to enhancements) but also regarding the nature of things that may constitute someone’s well-being (ranging from its purely hedonistic to nonhedonistic conceptions)." ''

Feminization surgeries are surgeries that result in anatomy that is typically gendered female. These surgeries include vaginoplasty, feminizing augmentation mammoplasty, orchiectomy, facial feminization surgery, reduction thyrochondroplasty (tracheal shave), and voice feminization surgery among others.

Masculinization surgeries are surgeries that result in anatomy that is typically gendered male. These surgeries include chest masculinization surgery (top surgery), metoidioplasty, phalloplasty, scrotoplasty, and hysterectomy.

In addition to SRS, patients may need to follow a lifelong course of masculinizing or feminizing hormone replacement therapy.

In the US in 1917, Alan L. Hart, an American tuberculosis specialist, became one of the first female-to-male transsexuals to undergo hysterectomy and gonadectomy as treatment of what is now called gender dysphoria.

In Berlin in 1931, Dora Richter became the first known transgender woman to undergo vaginoplasty.

Lili Elbe of Dresden, Germany became the next SRS patient in 1930–1931. Her first surgery removed all of her original sex organs. The operation was supervised by Magnus Hirschfeld. She had four subsequent operations that included an orchiectomy, an ovary transplant, a penectomy, and ultimately an unsuccessful uterine transplant. Transplant rejection resulted in her death. She received emasculation surgery and the ovary transplant in June 1930. She changed her legal sex in October 1930.

Elmer Belt may have been the first U.S. surgeon to perform gender affirmation surgery about 1950.

In 1951, Harold Gillies, a plastic surgeon active in World War II, worked to develop the first technique for female-to-male SRS, producing a technique that has become a modern standard, called phalloplasty. Phalloplasty is a cosmetic procedure that produces a visual penis out of grafted tissue from the patient.

Following phalloplasty, in 1999, the procedure for metoidioplasty was developed for female-to-male surgical transition by the doctors Lebovic and Laub. Considered a variant of phalloplasty, metoidioplasty works to create a penis out of the patient's present clitoris. This allows the patient to have a sensation-perceiving penis head. Metoidioplasty may be used in conjunction with phalloplasty to produce a larger, more "cis-appearing" penis in multiple stages.

As of 2017, some European countries require forced sterilization for the legal recognition of sex reassignment. As of 2020, Japan also requires an individual to undergo sterilization to change their legal sex.

Medical considerations[edit]
Some transgender persons present with health conditions including diabetes, asthma, and HIV, which can lead to complications with future therapy and pharmacological management. Typical SRS procedures involve complex medication regimens, including sex hormone therapy, throughout and after surgery. Typically, a patient's treatment involves a healthcare team consisting of a variety of providers including endocrinologists, whom the surgeon may consult when determining if the patient is physically fit for surgery. Health providers including pharmacists can play a role in maintaining safe and cost-effective regimens, providing patient education, and addressing other health issues including smoking cessation and weight loss.

People with HIV or hepatitis C may have difficulty finding a surgeon able to perform successful surgery. Many surgeons operate in small private clinics that cannot treat potential complications in these populations. Some surgeons charge higher fees for HIV and hepatitis C-positive patients; other medical professionals assert that it is unethical to deny surgical or hormonal treatments to transgender people solely on the basis of their HIV or hepatitis status.

Fertility is also a factor considered in SRS, as patients are typically informed that if an orchiectomy or oöphoro-hysterectomy is performed, it might make them irreversibly infertile.

Gender dysphoric children[edit]
Sex reassignment surgery is generally not performed on children under 18, though in rare cases may be performed on adolescents if health care providers agree there is an unusual benefit to doing so or risk to not performing it. Preferred treatments for children include puberty blockers, which are thought to have reversible effects, and sex hormones, which reduce the need for future surgery. Medical protocols typically require long-term mental health counseling to verify persistent and genuine gender dysphoria before any intervention, and consent of a parent or guardian or court order is legally required in most jurisdictions.[citation needed]

Intersex children and cases of trauma[edit]
Main article: Sex assignment § Assignment in cases of infants with intersex traits, or cases of trauma

Infants born with intersex conditions might undergo interventions at or close to birth. This is controversial because of the human rights implications.

Catastrophic outcomes (including PTSD and suicide) can occur when the surgically assigned gender does not match the individual's gender identity, which is determined by neuroanatomical brain wiring and might only be realized by the individual later in life. Milton Diamond at the John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii recommended that physicians do not perform surgery on children until they are old enough to give informed consent and to assign such infants in the gender to which they will probably best adjust. Diamond believed introducing children to others with differences of sex development could help remove shame and stigma. Diamond considered the intersex condition as a difference of sex development, not as a disorder.

Standards of care[edit]
See also: Transgender rights

Sex reassignment surgery can be difficult to obtain due to financial barriers, insurance coverage, and lack of providers. An increasing number of surgeons are now training to perform such surgeries. In many regions, an individual's pursuit of SRS is often governed, or at least guided, by documents called Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender Nonconforming People (SOC). The most widespread SOC in this field is published and frequently revised by the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH, formerly the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association or HBIGDA). Many jurisdictions and medical boards in the United States and other countries recognize the WPATH Standards of Care for the treatment of transgender individuals. Some treatment may require a minimum duration of psychological evaluation and living as a member of the target gender full-time, sometimes called the real life experience (RLE) (sometimes mistakenly referred to as the real life test (RLT)) before sex reassignment surgeries are covered by insurance.[citation needed]

Standards of Care usually give certain very specific "minimum" requirements as guidelines for progressing with treatment, causing them to be highly controversial and often maligned documents among transgender patients seeking surgery. Alternative local standards of care exist, such as in the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. Much of the criticism surrounding the WPATH/HBIGDA-SOC applies to these as well, and some of these SOCs (mostly European SOC) are actually based on much older versions of the WPATH-SOC. Other SOCs are entirely independent of the WPATH. The criteria of many of those SOCs are stricter than the latest revision of the WPATH-SOC. Many qualified surgeons in North America and many in Europe adhere almost unswervingly to the WPATH-SOC or other SOCs. However, in the United States many experienced surgeons are able to apply the WPATH SOC in ways which respond to an individual's medical circumstances, as is consistent with the SOC.[citation needed]

Many surgeons require two letters of recommendation for sex reassignment surgery. At least one of these letters must be from a mental health professional experienced in diagnosing gender identity disorder (now recognized as gender dysphoria), who has known the patient for over a year. Letters must state that sex reassignment surgery is the correct course of treatment for the patient.

Many medical professionals and numerous professional associations have stated that surgical interventions should not be required in order for transsexual individuals to change sex designation on identity documents. However, depending on the legal requirements of many jurisdictions, transsexual and transgender people are often unable to change the listing of their sex in public records unless they can furnish a physician's letter attesting that sex reassignment surgery has been performed. In some jurisdictions legal gender change is prohibited in any circumstances, even after genital or other surgery or treatment.

Insurance[edit]
A growing number of public and commercial health insurance plans in the United States now contain defined benefits covering sex reassignment-related procedures, usually including genital reconstruction surgery (MTF and FTM), chest reconstruction (FTM), breast augmentation (MTF), and hysterectomy (FTM). In order for patients to qualify for insurance coverage, certain insurance plans may require proof of the following:


 * a written initial assessment by a qualified licensed mental health professional
 * persistent, well-documented gender dysphoria
 * months of prior physician-supervised hormone therapy

In June 2008, the American Medical Association (AMA) House of Delegates stated that the denial to patients with gender dysphoria or otherwise covered benefits represents discrimination, and that the AMA supports "public and private health insurance coverage for treatment for gender dysphoria as recommended by the patient's physician." Other organizations have issued similar statements, including WPATH, the American Psychological Association, and the National Association of Social Workers.

In 2017, the United States Defense Health Agency for the first time approved payment for sex reassignment surgery for an active-duty U.S. military service member. The patient, an infantry soldier who is a transgender woman, had already begun a course of treatment for gender reassignment. The procedure, which the treating doctor deemed medically necessary, was performed on November 14 at a private hospital, since U.S. military hospitals lack the requisite surgical expertise.

Surgical procedures[edit]
Main articles: Sex reassignment surgery (male-to-female) and Sex reassignment surgery (female-to-male)

Genital surgery[edit]
The array of medically indicated surgeries differs between trans women (male to female) and trans men (female to male). For trans women, genital reconstruction usually involves the surgical construction of a vagina, by means of penile inversion or the sigmoid colon neovagina technique; or, more recently, non-penile inversion techniques that make use of scrotal tissue to construct the vaginal canal. For trans men, genital reconstruction may involve construction of a penis through either phalloplasty or metoidioplasty. For both trans women and trans men, genital surgery may also involve other medically necessary ancillary procedures, such as orchiectomy, penectomy, mastectomy or vaginectomy. Complications of penile inversion vaginoplasty are mostly minor; however, rectoneovaginal fistulas (abnormal connections between the neovagina and the rectum) can occur in about 1–3% of patients. These require additional surgery to correct and are often fixed by colorectal surgeons.

As underscored by WPATH, a medically assisted transition from one sex to another may entail any of a variety of non-genital surgical procedures, any of which are considered "sex reassignment surgery" when performed as part of treatment for gender dysphoria. For trans men, these may include mastectomy (removal of the breasts) and chest reconstruction (the shaping of a male-contoured chest), or hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy (removal of ovaries and Fallopian tubes). For some trans women, facial feminization surgery, hair implants, and breast augmentation are also aesthetic components of their surgical treatment.

Scope and procedures[edit]
The best known of these surgeries are those that reshape the genitals, which are also known as genital reassignment surgery or genital reconstruction surgery (GRS)- or bottom surgery (the latter is named in contrast to top surgery, which is surgery to the breasts; bottom surgery does not refer to surgery on the buttocks in this context). However, the meaning of "sex reassignment surgery" has been clarified by the medical subspecialty organization, the World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH), to include any of a larger number of surgical procedures performed as part of a medical treatment for "gender dysphoria" or "transsexualism". According to WPATH, medically necessary sex reassignment surgeries include "complete hysterectomy, bilateral mastectomy, chest reconstruction or augmentation ... including breast prostheses if necessary, genital reconstruction (by various techniques which must be appropriate to each patient ...)... and certain facial plastic reconstruction." In addition, other non-surgical procedures are also considered medically necessary treatments by WPATH, including facial hair electrolysis.

Voice feminizing surgery is a procedure in which the overall pitch range of the patients voice is reduced.

Adam’s Apple Reduction surgery (chondrolaryngoplasty) or tracheal shaving is a procedure in which the most prominent part of the thyroid cartilage is reduced.

There is also Adam’s Apple Enhancement therapy, in which cartilage is used to bring out the Adam’s apple in female to male patients.

Quality of life and physical health[edit]
Patients of sex reassignment surgery may experience changes in their physical health and quality of life, as well as side effects of sex steroid treatment.

Several studies have measured quality of life and self-perceived physical health using different scales. Overall, transsexual people have rated their quality of life as normal or quite good, although their overall score was lower than those in the control group. Another study showed similar quality of life self-reporting in the transsexual and control groups. One long-term study suggests that 15 years after surgery, quality of life is similar in transgender post-surgical and cisgender control groups, although scores in the domains of physical and personal limitations were still significantly lower among trans participants. Research has also shown that quality of life of transsexual patients can be enhanced by other variables. For instance, trans men obtained a higher self-perceived health score than women because they had a higher level of testosterone than women. Trans women who had undergone face feminization surgery reported higher satisfaction in their general physical health.

''A potential drawback of the procedure was reported that transsexual individuals had been hospitalized for psychiatric morbidity other than gender identity disorder prior to sex reassignment about four times more often than controls.  In addition this study showed that sex-reassigned persons had a higher risk of inpatient care for a psychiatric disorder versus people who remained their same sex from birth. ''

Psychological and social consequences[edit]
After sex reassignment surgery, transsexuals (people who underwent cross-sex hormone therapy and sex reassignment surgery) tend to be less gender dysphoric. They also normally function well both socially and psychologically. Anxiety, depression and hostility levels were lower after sex reassignment surgery. They also tend to score well for self-perceived mental health, which is independent from sexual satisfaction. Many studies have been carried out to investigate satisfaction levels of patients after sex reassignment surgery. In these studies, most of the patients have reported being very happy with the results and very few of the patients have expressed regret for undergoing sex reassignment surgery.

Although studies have suggested that the positive consequences of sex reassignment surgery outweigh the negative consequences, it has been suggested that most studies investigating the outcomes of sex reassignment surgery are flawed as they have only included a small percentage of sex reassignment surgery patients in their studies. These methodological limitations such as lack of double-blind randomized controls, small number of participants due to the rarity of transsexualism, high drop-out rates and low follow-up rates, which would indicate need for continued study.

Persistent regret can occur after sex reassignment surgery. Regret may be due to unresolved gender dysphoria, or a weak and fluctuating sense of identity, and may even lead to suicide. Risk categories for post-operative regret include being older, having characterized personality disorders with personal and social instability, lacking family support, lacking sexual activity, and expressing dissatisfaction with the results of surgery. During the process of sex reassignment surgery, transsexuals may become victims of different social obstacles such as discrimination, prejudice and stigmatizing behaviors. The rejection faced by transgender people is much more severe than what is experienced by lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. The hostile environment may trigger or worsen internalized transphobia, depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress.

Many patients perceive the outcome of the surgery as not only medically but also psychologically important. Social support can help them to relate to their minority identity, ascertain their trans identity and reduce minority stress. Therefore, it is suggested that psychological support is crucial for patients after sex reassignment surgery, which helps them feel accepted and have confidence in the outcome of the surgery; also, psychological support will become increasingly important for patients with lengthier sex reassignment surgery process.

Sexuality[edit]
Looking specifically at transsexual people's genital sensitivities, both trans men and trans women are capable of maintaining their genital sensitivities after SRS. However, these are counted upon the procedures and surgical tricks which are used to preserve the sensitivity. Considering the importance of genital sensitivity in helping transsexual individuals to avoid unnecessary harm or injuries to the genitals, allowing trans men to obtain an erection by inserting a penile implant after phalloplasty, the ability for transsexual to experience erogenous and tactile sensitivity in their reconstructed genitals is one of the essential objectives surgeons want to achieve in SRS. Moreover, studies have also found that the critical procedure for genital sensitivity maintenance and achieving orgasms after phalloplasty is to preserve both the clitoris hood and the clitoris underneath the reconstructed phallus.

Erogenous sensitivity is measured by the capabilities to reach orgasms in genital sexual activities, like masturbation and intercourse. Many studies reviewed that both trans men and trans women have reported an increase of orgasms in both sexual activities, implying the possibilities to maintain or even enhance genital sensitivity after SRS.

The majority of the transsexual individuals have reported enjoying better sex lives and improved sexual satisfaction after sex reassignment surgery. The enhancement of sexual satisfaction was positively related to the satisfaction of new primary sex characteristics. Before undergoing SRS, transsexual patients possessed unwanted sex organs which they were eager to remove. Hence, they were not enthusiastic about engaging in sexual activity. Transsexual individuals who have undergone SRS are more satisfied with their bodies and experienced less stress when participating in sexual activity.

Most of the individuals have reported that they have experienced sexual excitement during sexual activity, including masturbation. The ability to obtain orgasms is positively associated with sexual satisfaction. Frequency and intensity of orgasms are substantially different among transsexual men and transsexual women. Almost all female-to-male individuals have revealed an increase in sexual excitement and are capable of achieving orgasms through sexual activity with a partner or via masturbation, whereas only 85% of the male-to-female individuals are able to achieve orgasms after SRS. A study found that both trans men and trans women reported qualitative change in their experience of orgasm. The female-to-male transgender individuals reported that they had been experiencing intensified and stronger excitements and orgasm while male-to-female individuals have been encountering longer and more gentle feelings.

The rates of masturbation have also changed after sex reassignment surgery for both trans women and trans men. A study reported an overall increase of masturbation frequencies exhibited in most transsexual individuals and 78% of them were able to reach orgasm by masturbation after SRS. A study showed that there were differences in masturbation frequencies between trans men and trans women, in which female-to-male individuals masturbated more often than male to female The possible reasons for the differences in masturbation frequency could be associated with the surge of libido, which was caused by the testosterone therapies, or the withdrawal of gender dysphoria.

Concerning transsexuals’ expectations for different aspects of their life, the sexual aspects have the lowest level of satisfaction among all other elements (physical, emotional and social levels). When comparing transsexuals with biological individuals of the same gender, trans women had a similar sexual satisfaction to non-trans women, but trans men had a lower level of sexual satisfaction to non-trans men. Moreover, trans men also had a lower sexual satisfaction with their sexual life than trans women.

Africa[edit]
Morocco: Casablanca, Morocco, is notable for being the home of Clinique de Parc, Georges Burou's clinic for transgender women. Burou is considered one of the pioneers of SRS. A French gynecologist, Burou created the anteriorly pedicled penile skin flap inversion vaginoplasty, still considered the "gold standard" of skin-lined vaginoplasty. He is credited with having performed over 3000 MtF surgeries.

Asia[edit]
India: India is offering affordable sex reassignment surgery to a growing number of medical tourists and to the general population.

Iran: The Iranian government's response to homosexuality is to endorse, and fully pay for, sex reassignment surgery. The leader of Iran's Islamic Revolution, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, issued a fatwa declaring sex reassignment surgery permissible for "diagnosed transsexuals". Eshaghian's documentary, Be Like Others, chronicles a number of stories of Iranian gay men who feel transitioning is the only way to avoid further persecution, jail, or execution. The head of Iran's main transsexual organization, Maryam Khatoon Molkara—who convinced Khomeini to issue the fatwa on transsexuality—confirmed that some people who undergo operations are gay rather than transsexual.

Japan: As of 2020, Japan requires the forced sterilization of transgender people for the legal recognition of sex reassignment.

Pakistan: In Pakistan, the Council of Islamic Ideology has ruled that SRS contravenes Islamic law as construed by the council.

Thailand: Thailand is the country that performs the most sex reassignment surgeries, followed by Iran.

Indonesia: In Indonesia, it has been possible to do sex reassignment surgery since 1973 when Vivian Rubianti was the first transgender woman to have legal gender changes in the country. Indonesia requires SRS and judicial approval for a person to legally change gender. Then, the gender/sex change of that transgender individual will be recognized by the state as the opposite legal gender.

Europe[edit]
France: Since 2016, France no longer requires SRS as a condition for a gender change on legal documents. In 2017, a case brought earlier by three transgender French people was decided. France was found in violation of the European Convention on Human Rights for requiring the forced sterilization of transgender people seeking to change their gender on legal documents.

Malta: As late as 2010, transgender people that have undergone SRS can change their sex on legal documents.

Spain: Despite a resolution from the European Parliament in 1989 suggesting advanced rights for all European Union citizens, as of 2002 only Andalusia's public health system covers sex reassignment surgery.[better source needed]

Switzerland: In 2010, the Swiss Federal Supreme Court struck down two laws that limited access to SRS. These included requirements of at least 2 years of psychotherapy before health insurance was obligated to cover the cost of SRS and inability to procreate.

Ukraine: In 2015, the Administrative District Court of Kiev ruled that forced sterilization was unlawful and no longer required for legal gender change.[citation needed]

United Kingdom: Sex reassignment surgery is available only to persons aged 18 years and over. It is not a requirement for legal gender change.

North America[edit]
Canada: As of July 1, 2017, all Canadian provinces and territories allow a change of sex on birth certificates without SRS requirements.[excessive citations]

Cuba: On June 4, 2008, MINSAP, the Cuban Ministry of Public Health, issued Resolution 126 - an act that assured complete coverage for Cubans seeking sexual reassignment surgeries, the first of any country in Latin America to do so. Consisting of 11 articles, article 5 of the resolution explains that it is the responsibility of the national commission to provide comprehensive health care to “all transsexual citizens.” This includes diagnosis, psychological and psychiatric care, the provision of necessary medications, therapy, and reassignment surgery. Prior to being approved, it was suggested that the bill would make Cuba the most progressive nation in Latin America on gender issues. The resolution was heavily pushed for by CENESEX a government-funded body dedicated to advocating LGBT rights and "sexual diversity".

Mexico: As of a 2014 law, Mexico City no longer requires SRS for changes of sex on birth certificates, and several states have followed suit.

United States of America: Before the legalization of same-sex marriage in the United States, there were several Supreme Court cases that did not legally recognize individuals who underwent SRS by invalidating marriages of trans people.[irrelevant citation] Today, many states require SRS as a prerequisite for recognition of a legal sex change on official documents such as passports, birth certificates, or IDs.

South America[edit]
Argentina: In 2012, Argentina began offering government subsidized total or partial SRS to all persons 18 years of age or older. Private insurance companies are prohibited from increasing the cost of SRS for their clients. At the same time, the Argentinian government repealed a law that banned SRS without authorization from a judge. Furthermore, it is not required to undergo SRS to change sex on legal documents.

Chile: In 2012, a bill was introduced that stated SRS was no longer a requirement for legal name and sex change. In 2013, Chile's public health plan was required to cover sex reassignment surgery. The cost is subsidized by the government based on a patient's income.