User:DiN/Old Sundanese script

Old Sundanese script is a writing system which was used by Sundanese people the 14th – 18th centuries. Today, the script is revived as standardized Sundanese script.

Study of Local Scripts in Indonesia
J. G. de Casparis (1975) compiled a book entitled "Indonesian Palaeography: A History of Writing in Indonesian from the Beginning to ca. A.D. 1500". The book contains the development of writing systems in Indonesia, especially in Java and Bali islands because the data from those areas are presented in more complete way. On the other hand, there is also "Tabel van Oud- en Nieuw- Indische Alphabetten", a book written by K. F. Holle (1877), which can be considered as "the pilot" for studying different Indic scripts and surroundings (e.g. Gujarat, Kashmir, Punjab, Nepal, Tibet, Bengal, Tamil, Myanmar, Thailand, Malay, Khmer, Kampuchea, Vietnam). The book contains also tables of scripts from those areas since beginning till ca. 18th century which were used to write on declarations on stones or metals, as well as to write story and history on bamboo's blocks, lontar, nipah (palm leaves), early papers and daluang (mulberry leaves).

Today in Indonesia, the skillset which focus on the study of old scripts or writing systems is only not monopolized by one field of science. Scientists who study the script can be categorized into three groups.

First group, epigraphy, studies scripts written on stone materials, cupper blocks, or other metal blocks which normally use Pallawa derived scripts. Although the writings on those materials exist until now, epigraphy in Indonesia focuses on materials created until early 16th century.

Second group studies the writings on different skin materials (tree skins or animal skins), leaves (lontar, palm, coconut, daluang), and papers (local or imported) which uses Arabic or local scripts from 8th  until end of 19th  century. The field of study is called philology.

Third study, called archivology, focuses on the writings on papers materials (especially from Europe) and Latin script. Those documents may contain the relationship between Indonesian kingdoms and European countries / traders which had important roles in the stage of Indonesian history.

Nevertheless, if we look into the object of studies, there is not much difference between the three groups. They are often categorized as palaeography. They study on an old document and tell other people about the content of the text. They also study on the evolution of writing systems.

Influence of Indic Script
The influence can be differentiated into three types:


 * 1)       Early-Pallawa. similar to Calukya and Venggi models
 * 2)       Later-Pallawa, similar to Pali (Ava and Siam) and Kampuchea models
 * 3)       Nagari, similar to Devanagari and Nepal models.

Early-Pallawa script were used on "prasasti"s (declaration stones) from 3rd till 5th centuries in South Indian and Srilanka. In Sundanese (West Javanese) region, this script were used on prasastis from Tarumanagara Kingdom, such as prasasti Kebonkopi I (ca. 450 A.D.), Ciaruteun (ca. 450 A.D.), Jambu (ca. 450 A.D.), and Tugu (ca. 450 A.D.). There is also prasasti Muara Kaman (ca 400 A.D.) in Kutai, East Kalimantan (Kern, 1917; Holle, 1877, 1882).

History
As one of the oldest civilization in Indonesia (since 16th centuries ago), Sundanese culture has left plenty of written artifacts such as prasastis, declarations, awards, and old documents. These show writing culture in Sundanese people from that era and present facts about the conscience from those people about the importance of spreading of information as results of thinking and feeling process, by using its language and scripts on each passed period[2].

Kern (1917) in a book entitled "Versvreide Geschriften; Inschripties van den Indichen Archipel" presented facts and archeological maps, in form of inscriptions and facsimiles, about prasastis from Tarumanagara. This shows writing skills from 5th century.

Next, in the Sunda Kingdom era (Pakuan Pajajaran and Galuh, 8th - 16th century), not only artifacts from stones and declarations have been found, such as Geger Hanjuang, Sanghyang Tapak, Kawali, Batutulis, and Kebantenan, but also plenty of documents on soft materials (lontar, palm, coconut, bamboo, daluang) from different Sundanese areas. The oldest texts from these area ranges from around 14th – 16th centuries. Several texts have been studied, such as: Carita Parahyangan (CP), Fragment Carita Parahyangan (FCP), Bujangga Manik (BM), Sri Ajnyana, Purnawijaya, Sanghyang Siksakanda Ng Karesian, Sanghyang Raga Dewata, Sanghyang Hayu, Pantun Ramayana (PRR), Serat Dewabuda, Serat Buwana Pitu, Serat Catur Bumi, Sewaka Darma (SD), Amanat Galunggung, Darmajati, Jatiniskala, and Kawih Paningkes.

The findings of Sundanese texts from 20th centuries then documented on several reports in form of catalogue compiled by Juynboll (1899, 1912), Poerbatjaraka (1933), Pigeaud (1967-1968, 1970), Sutaarga (1973), Ekadjati, et. al. (1988), Viviane Sukanda-Tessier & Hasan Muarif Ambary (1990), and Ekadjati & Undang A. Darsa (1999). The texts which have been documented and inventoried are now kept as museum and library collections, both government- or privately owned, in- or outside Indonesia. Moreover, there are still plenty of non-inventoried texts which are still kept by communities and peoples.

Typology
Sundanese script was based on Later Pallawa script. Those scripts are similar to Tibet and Punjab scripts (compare with Holle, 1877) and have several influence from scripts written on Tarumanagara prasastis, before evolving into its own unique form. These can be seen from old Sundanese prasastis and documents (lontar and bamboos) from 14th – 18th centuries.

Earliest variant of Sundanese script can be seen on prasastis and declarations from Pakuan-Pajajaran and Galuh period, such as prasastis found in the area Kabuyutan Astanagede, Kawali, in Ciamis city, West Java, made under the ruling of Prabu (King) Niskalawastu Kancana (1365-1478), and prasasti Batutulis in Bogor (1533) and Kebantenan declaration in Bekasi. The latest two were made after Sri Baduga Maharaja era (1482-1521).

Prasastis from Kawali can be categorized as piteket, or direct announcement from a king who order to build such prasasti. On the other hand, prasasti Batutulis and Kebantenan declaration can be categorized as sasakala, or prasasti made as commemoration of commands or roles from someone (kings) who have passed away.

On his analysis, K.F. Holle described the typology of the script on those prasastis as "modern schrift uit de Soenda-landen, en niet meer dan ± 1500 jaar oud" (modern script from Sundanese land, and not more than ± 1500 years old). In other words, the script was result of creativity from Sundanese people at that time.

Old sundanese script has 18 aksara ngalagena: ka ga nga ca ja nya ta da na pa ba ma ya ra la wa sa ha, plus 7 aksara swara: a, é, i, o, u, e, and eu. "Kaganga" ordering is used similar to that of old scripts from Sumatera and Javanese. In Indonesia, there are about 12 local scripts from Bali, Batak, Bengkulu, Bima, Bugis, (East/Central)Java, Komering, Lampung, Makassar, Pasemah, Rejang, and Sunda (West Java).

Not only used to write Sundanese language, Old-Sundanese script was also used to write Arabic and Javanese (Cirebon-style), in relation to spreading of Islamic teaching in Western Java. Carita Waruga Guru is considered as the youngest document using old Sundanese language and script. The text was from 18th century and written on European paper.

Symbols and System
There are variations of glyphs which can be categorized based on:


 * writing materials (stones, metals, leaves, papers, nail, hammer, knive, pen, ink, etc.)
 * individual or group of persons
 * period of writing (spans 400 years)
 * area of writing (covers almost all of Western Java area)

For example, glyphs written on leaves using peso pangot (pangot knive) have variations compared to those written using ink and pen. Similarly, glyphs and spelling written in the 14th century (prasasti Kawali) have variations in comparison with those written in the 16th century (Carita Parahyangan, Carita Ratu Pakuan, etc). But in general, glyphs in Old Sundanese can be grouped as aksara ngalagena (consonant characters), swara (independent vowel characters), rarangkén (attachments), khusus (special characters) and pasangan (paired/compound consonants).

Here described mainly the symbols and writing system found on soft-materials.

Swara (independent vowel) characters
There are 5 swara characters, which syllabically have the independent vowel sounds. Three of them were found to have two glyphs, /a/, /é/, and /i/. The three glyph variants were interchangeable in different texts. The followings are glyphs of swara characters.

Ngalagena characters
Ngalagena characters are symbols of sounds or consonants which syllabically has inherent /a/ sound. There are 18 ngalagena characters ordered based on the position of articulation instruments (guttural, palatal, lingual, dental, labial).

In addition, there are three glyph variants of 'nya' characters and two variants of 'ba' characters. Those glyphs are interchangeable in documents.

Special characters
There are four characters which can not be considered ngalagena characters because syllabically they do not contain /a/ vowel. Moreover, these characters does not have specific attachments.

le/leu character is called pangwilet (Jv: ngalelet). re/reu character is called panglelet (Jv: pacerek).

The followings are complete glyphs of special characters.

Rarangkén (attachments)

Based on their location to the base glyph, 14 rarangkén can be categorized as:
 * rarangkén above the base glyph = 5 kinds
 * rarangkén below the base glyph = 2 kinds
 * rarangkén inline the base glyph = 6 kinds

a. Rarangkéns above the base glyph


 * 1) panghulu,   modifies ngalagena vowel /a/ to /i/.
 * 2) pamepet,   modifies ngalagena vowel /a/ to /e/.
 * 3) paneuleung,   modifies ngalagena vowel /a/ to /eu/.
 * 4) panglayar,   adds consonant sound /+r/ to the base sound.
 * 5) panyecek,   adds consonant sound /+ng/ to the base sound.

b. Rarangkéns below the base glyph


 * 1) panyuku,   modifies ngalagena vowel /a/ to /u/.
 * 2) panyakra,   inserts consonant sound /+r/ to the base sound. Ending vowel can be modified   with different vocalization rarangkén.

c. Rarangkéns inline the base glyph


 * 1) panéléng, modifies ngalagena   vowel /a/ to /é/.
 * 2) panolong,   modifies ngalagena vowel /a/ to /o/.
 * 3) pamingkal,   inserts consonant sound /+y/ to the base sound. Ending vowel can be modified   with different vocalization rarangkén.
 * 4) pangwisad,   adds consonant sound /+h/ to the base sound.
 * 5) patén or   pamaéh, removes   vowel sound of the base sound. Special patén can also be found:
 * 6) adds consonant   sound /+k/ to the base sound, example: = anak (child);
 * 7) adds consonant   sound /+m/ to the base sound, example: = banem   (forest/woods)
 * 8) separate the vocal /a/ from the base ngalagena sound.

Pasangan (pairs/compound consonants)
Old Sundanese script has several pasangan form, or pairs- or compund consonants. A pasangan eliminates vowel sound of the base ngalagena character. There are pasangan umum (common) and pasangan khusus (special).

a. Pasangan umum (general pairs)

Pasangan umum generally can be attached to any ngalagena characters. There are four of them:


 * 1) -ma-, as in word janma (human being)
 * 2) -ra-, as in word prabu (king)
 * 3) -wa-, as in word bwana (world)
 * 4) -ya-, as in word hyang (Hi: Deva, En: God)

Note: -ra- and -ya- are also categorized as rarangkéns (panyakra and pamingkal).

b. Pasangan khusus (special pairs)

Several syllabic sounds are considered as pasangan khusus (special pairs) in the Old Sundanese script. They are either horizontally- or vertically arranged.

Vertical forms:


 * 1) -kta-,   as in word = byakta (proof, evidence)
 * 2) -nca-,   as in word = hanca (not yet)
 * 3) -nda-,   as in word = kanda (story, legend)
 * 4) -nta-,   as in word = santi (pure)
 * 5) -nyja-,   as in word = sanyjata (weapon)
 * 6) -tna-,   as in word = yatna (aware)

Horizontal forms:


 * 1) -hda-,   as in word = hdap ([human] character)
 * 2) -hra-,   as in word = cahrut (dirt)
 * 3) -jya-,   as in word = rajya (kingdom)
 * 4) -mpa-,   as in word = kampa (passionated)

Numbers
Several symbols in old Sundanese texts have values which can be considered as numbers.

Glyph variations
Different