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= Beef Cattle Vaccines in Australia = Associated WikiProjects: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Agriculture Vaccinations for cattle is the process of applying subcutaneous injections of biological microorganisms in a weakened state to help the immune system develop protection by providing active acquirement of immunity to a particular disease. Cattle are bovine livestock and are thus very susceptible to diseases. Vaccinations for cattle are widely used in the livestock industries of the Australian agriculture sector by farmers to prevent harmful and deadly diseases from infecting their livestock, avoiding any economical or biological harm. Farmed livestock industries accounting for 45% of the gross value of Australian agricultural output, beef cattle being the largest farmed livestock nationally – generating a gross value of approximately $8 billion AUD in beef exports and a total gross value of $11.4 billion in farm production. Thus, vaccinations play a vital role in protecting, sustaining and growing the beef cattle industry in the Australian agriculture sector.

Clostridial
Caused by the bacteria Clostridium. There are 6 species of the clostridia disease. They include; Malignant oedema (C. septicum), Tetanus (C. tetani), Blackleg (C. chauvoei), Black disease (C. novyi), Enterotoxaemia/Pulpy Kidney (C. perfringens type D) and Botulism (C. botulinum). Young cattle are at a higher risk than adults to these diseases due to marking, castration and dehorning procedures allowing the clostria diseases to invade.

Black leg and Pulpy Kidney rarely affect cattle over 2 years of age and tend to be a disease in young rapidly growing calves as well as breeding females if a calf injury has been sustained. Black disease occurs when the liver becomes damaged via liver fluke. Botulism takes place when the cattle are deficient in protein and phosphorus resulting in decaying material and the chewing of bones.

Cattle Tick
An external parasite known as Rhipicephalus microplus which spread tick fever onto the cattle via three blood-borne organisms Babesia bovis, Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bigemina. Tick fever results in material damage, internal damage, loss of condition, illness and death due to blood loss. Cattle tick is mainly a problem within endemic regions of Australia, with infestation occuring primarily in Western Australia, Queensland and the Northern Territory.

Vibriosis
A sexually transmitted disease caused by Campylobacter fetus, a venereal bacteria. Bulls are not directly affected and there are no visual signs of the disease however, they can carry the disease for an extended period of time and spread the disease during breeding to females resulting in infertility and abortions occuring mainly around mid-pregnancy. Permanent infertility can occur in some heifers (11%).

Pestivirus
A complex disease caused by bovine pestivirus, also known as BVDV (bovine viral diarrhoea virus). The disease results in the viability of calving decreased, increased occurence of calf scours as well as an increase in diarrhoea and respiratory disease.

Leptospirosis
A bacterial infection caused by L. hardjo and L. pomona. Leptospirosis results in infertility, abortions, fever and discolourisation, and red water in young calves all of which are severe and often fatal.

Other well known diseases include buffalo fly, neonatal calf mortality, internal parasites, calf scours and bovine epheremal fever but not all require a vaccination to cure; drenching is what is required for buffalo fly.

The frequency of the major diseases varies depending on climate, time of year, geographical location and management practices. These variations make it complex to develop appropriate vaccination practices and models.

Technique and Procedures
As cattle vaccinations are subcutaneous, the vaccine must be injected under the skin and must not penetrate into the muscle. Vaccines must be administered in the area outlined in the source given. Pick an area where the skin is clean to inject through. Fold some loose skin and lift slightly with your free hand and inject the vaccination at the base of the skin where it is 'tented', thus ensuring the needle only penetrates the fold of skin and no further.

Alcohol and other disenfectants can disable a vaccine and therefore shouldn't be used when vaccinating. However, ensure that the needles being used have been steralised. Usually the needles have already been steralised if they come in a separate package. It is recommended to use a multi-dose inoculator gun with a clean sharp needle. The needles must be changed regularly.

Vaccination and Timing
Cattle should be vaccinated for the five common clostridial diseases (tetanus, enterotoxaemia, blackleg, malignant oedema and black disease) with a ‘5-in-1’ vaccine. A separate vaccine is available for protection against botulism if required. Leptospirosis vaccine is available as a double vaccine that protects against both L. hardjo and L. pomona bacterium, or is also available in a 7in1 vaccine that combines with the clostridial 5in1 vaccine in one vaccination. Calves should be vaccinated from 6 weeks of age as this is the primary dose of vaccine for a calf as it allows them to stimulate their own antibody production. A 'booster' vaccine should also be given at 12 weeks of age to continue this development. Heifers, steers and cows should receive an annual dose to keep boosting their protective immunity, resulting in lifelong immunity against most diseases.

Cattle tick, while primarily is treated with drenching can also be treated via an injectable vaccine. This reduces the occurrence of any internal damages caused by cattle tick and the three blood borne organisms it produces, protecting the liver, stomach and small intestines. Treatment can be given at any time but ideally during weaning, 3 to 9 months of age. An annual booster should not be required unless signs and symptoms reappear after some time in heavily affected areas in Australia, i.e. endemic regions.

For Vibrosis, bulls should receive two doses of the vaccine Vibrovax when being introduced, 4 weeks apart. An annual booster is also required for lifelong immunity. Heifers greater than 18 months of age also require a vaccination of Vibrovax. Annual boosters are recommended to continue the lifelong immunity to ensure the disease is rid of.

Pestivirus vaccine should be administered to heifers and previously unvaccinated cows. The primary vaccine should be given 6 to 8 weeks before joining and a second reinforcing booster dose given 2 to 4 weeks before joining. An annual booster should be administered. Bulls should be vaccinated at the same time as cows. It is important to note that you must read the instructions provided on the vaccine to ensure the correct timing and technique of the given vaccine. Before beginning a vaccination program contact your chief veterinarian, beef adviser or stock inspector for up-to-date advice.

Biological Impact
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Effect on reproduction

Role of vaccinations to reduce/eliminate this*****

Economic Impact
The beef cattle industry is Australia's largest geographically spread livestock industry as well as the largest livestock industry by value. As a result of this, large costs are incurred for treatment, production losses and prevention. Cattle are very susceptible to diseases as they are a bovine livestock, the prevalence and frequency of these diseases (mentioned above) depend on climate, time of year, geographical location and management practices. Thus it is extremely difficult and complex to derive and estimate the national costs associated with these diseases and animal health issues. In 2015 Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA) created a report to fill the gap in current information on disease economical impacts that estimated the costs associated with different diseases within Australia. These costs include treatment, prevention and production loss.

Cattle Tick is the largest costing diseases in the beef industry with an estimated economical impact of an estimated $161 million AUD annually. An estimated $156 million AUD of that was in the endemic states alone. The procedures to prevent and treat this disease are the main costs involved with Cattle Tick. Pesitvirus (BVDV) was identified as the second largest costing disease with an estimated $114 million AUD annually spent on the treatment, prevention and production loss. Production loss and prevention efforts are the largest costs associated with Pestivirus (BVDV). Bovine ephemeral fever, vibriosis, clostrial diseases, neonatal calf mortality, calf scours and internal parasites acount for a combined estimated $333.4 million AUD in costs annually. These costs are spread across the nation and are not distributed equally due to geographical measures and climate.

Vaccinations have helped bring this number down to what it could potentially be without effective treatment and prevention techniques like vaccinations. Disease prevention and treatment through the administration of vaccinations stops the spread of disease in cattle and reduces the potential economical as well as biological impact that diseases threaten. Extensive vaccination management programs maximise the yield and overall health of cattle resulting in a healthier beef industry within Australia. The beef industry in Australia plays a critical role in the national economy. Australia is the world's third largest exporter of beef, exporting to around 77 countries globally and as such is a very important part of the Australian economy. The export beef industry in Australia generates a gross value of approximately $8 billion AUD, with a total of $11.4 billion in total national production. Diseases pose a massive threat to this output which is why vaccinations play a vital role in protecting, sustaining and growing the beef cattle industry in the Australian agriculture sector.