User:Dragfyre/Sandbox/History of rail transport in Vietnam

Rail transport was introduced to Vietnam in the 1880s, on the initiative of the French administration of Indochina. The earliest project involving rail transport to be completed was the Saigon–Cholon tramway, established in 1881; construction of the first regional rail project, linking Saigon and My Tho, began in the same year, to be completed soon afterwards in 1885.

The Vietnamese railway network saw its greatest expansion during the appointment of Paul Doumer as Governor-General of French Indochina from 1897 to 1902; construction of several new lines began during that time, including the Yunnan–Vietnam Railway and the North–South Railway, which were completed in 1910 and in 1936, respectively.

Timeline
Dec 27 1881: Saigon–Cholon opens. Jul 20 1885: Saigon–My Tho opens. (Missing bridge at Ben Luc). May 1886: Bridge at Ben Luc opens. Dec 1895: Phu Lang Thuong–Lang Son opens. 1902: Hanoi–Haiphong opens (specifically, Haiphong–Gia Lam). 1902: Hanoi–Dong Dang opens. 1902: Bridge at Long Bien opens. November 1903: Hanoi–Viet Tri opens. 1905: Hanoi–Vinh opens. 1906: Hanoi–Lao Cai opens. 1906: Hue–Danang opens. 1908: Saigon–Tan Linh opens. 1908: Hue–Dong Ha opens. 1910: Lao Cai–Kunming opens. 1911: Haiphong–Kunming, Hanoi–Lang Son, Hanoi–Vinh, Danang–Hue–Quang Tri, Can Tho–My Tho–Saigon–Bien Hoa–(Jiring)?–Khanh Hoa, Muong Man–Phan Thiet, Thap Cham–Phan Rang. 1913: Tan Linh—Nha Trang opens. 1913: Thap Cham–Tan My opens. 1919: Tan My–Song Pha opens. 1921: Dong Dang–Na Sam opens. 1922: Haiphong–Kunming, Hanoi–Dong Dang, Dong Dang–Na Sam, Hanoi–Vinh, Danang–Dong Ha, My Tho–Saigon, Saigon–Nha Trang, Muong Man–Phan Thiet, Thap Cham–Phan Rang. 1925: Vinh–Dong Ha opens? 1925: 2373 km in Indochina. 1927: Vinh–Hue opens. 1928: Song Pha–Eo Gio opens. 1929: Eo Gio–Don Duong opens. 1930: Don Duong–Tram Hanh opens. 1932: Tram Hanh–Da Lat opens. 1933: Tan Ap line opens. 1933: Loc Ninh–Ben Dong Xo opens. 1936: Danang–Nha Trang opens (Hanoi–Saigon opens). 1937: Ben Dong Xo–Di An opens. 1940: Hanoi–Lao Cai closes. 1946: Hanoi–Hue closes. 1946: Danang–Ninh Hoa closes. 1946: Saigon–Ninh Hoa reopens. 1946: Loc Ninh—Di An reopens. 1946: Saigon–My Tho reopens. 1947: Hue–Danang reopens. 1953: Saigon–Cholon closes. 1955: Hanoi–Dong Dang reopens. (http://www.vr.com.vn/120namds/120namdsvn.asp?offset=29#chung) 1955: Hanoi–Nam Dinh reopens. (http://www.vr.com.vn/120namds/120namdsvn.asp?offset=35#chung) 1956: Hanoi–Lao Cai reopens. (http://www.vr.com.vn/120namds/120namdsvn.asp?offset=36#chung) 1959: Saigon–My Tho closes. 1959: Loc Ninh–Di An closes. August 1959: Saigon–Hue reopens. 1950s: Kep–Ha Long opens? 1960: Hanoi–Thai Nguyen opens. 1964: Hanoi–Haiphong reopens. 1964: Hanoi–Lang Son reopens. 1965: Kep–Thai Nguyen opens. 1968: Thap Cham–Da Lat closes. January 1969: Hue–Danang reopens. 1969: Saigon–Long Khanh, Song Mao–Phu Cat, Danang–Hue. 1971: the railroad was in operation in three separate areas with approximately 60 percent, or 710 kilometers, of the 1,240 kilometers of main line and branch line track in use. 1972: Bridge at Thanh Hoa closes. 2 Dec 1976: Quang Ngai–Da Nang reopens. (http://www.vr.com.vn/120namds/120namdsvn.asp?offset=75#chung) 31 Dec 1976: Hanoi–Saigon reopens. 1979: Chinese border closes. 1983: Uong Bi–Dien Cong opens. 1992: Chinese border reopens.

Colonial beginnings (1881–1896)
La Cochinchine française voit officiellement le jour après ratification d'un traité avec la cour d'Annam en 1862 et de nombreux colons, en majorité bordelais, commencent à s'y installer. On songe rapidement à la mise en valeur de la nouvelle colonie, et en particulier à l'établissement d'un réseau de chemins de fer. La question mobilise les talents des nombreux fonctionnaires de la colonie. Dès 1874, l'ingénieur en chef du service des travaux publics de Cochinchine Eyraud de Vergnes suggère la création d'un chemin de fer de Saïgon à Phnom Penh via Tayning et Preveng. Le Myre de Villers, premier gouverneur civil de la Cochinchine, fait refaire des études sur le sujet. Une demande de concession de l'ensemble est déposée par J. Rueff, représentant de la Compagnie des chemins de fer de l'est algérien (EA).

La question est enfin débattue en 1880. L'ingénieur Thevenet réalise une synthèse des projets proposés, abandonne le tracé nord, et préconise un tracé par le sud et l'ouest, via Mytho et Vinh Long, avec embranchement éventuel sur Traon. L'administration retient ce tracé et le réduit à la planification d'un chemin de fer de Saïgon à Mytho. (fr:Compagnie_des_chemins_de_fer_garantis_des_colonies_françaises)

Dès le 24 septembre 1873, un certain Joyeux réclame la concession d'une petite ligne de chemin de fer ou de tramway entre Saigon et Cholon. Ne trouvant pas de capitaux en France, il s'associe avec des financiers britanniques, ce qui motive sans doute le rejet de sa demande (1). Le 18 octobre 1875, le négociant saigonais Alfred G. Hoog obtient la concession. Mais il n'entreprend rien, et le projet sombre vite dans l'oubli. Quatre ans plus tard, le 11 décembre 1879, la concession est accordée aux négociants saigonais Ogliastro et Théodore Blustein. Pour financer l'opération, ils se sont associés aux capitalistes parisiens Cousin et Desbuissons. Le cahier des charges du futur chemin de fer est publié le 19 janvier 1880. Partant du port de Saigon, la ligne doit longer la rivière de Saigon, puis l'arroyo chinois. Elle empruntera ensuite la route haute de Saigon pour aboutir au quai Caudot à Cholon. La Société générale des tramways à vapeur de Cochinchine est créée peu après, avec siège social au 24 rue Saint-Lazare à Paris. Elle est officiellement substituée aux concessionnaires initiaux par décisions du conseil colonial des 25 et 26 octobre 1880. (2) (fr:Société générale des tramways à vapeur de Cochinchine)

The concept of a tramway connecting Saigon and Cholon had been discussed many years previously, and at least two individual requests for concessions are known to have been handled by French authorities prior to 1879, both of which ultimately failed due to lack of funding.

Saigon–Cholon tramway
On December 11, 1879, two Saigon-based merchants, Ogliastro and Theodore Blustein, received approval to develop a railway line connecting Saigon and Cholon, with financing assured by Parisian investors Cousin and Desbuissons. The specifications of the new line were published on January 19, 1880: it would follow the Saigon River, turning along the Ben Nghe Canal on Gallieni boulevard (now known as Tran Hung Dao Street) towards Cholon, ending at Caudot Dock in Cholon. To handle the project, the Cochinchina Steam Tramway Company (SGTVC) was established, with headquarters in Paris, officially taking over all operations on October 26, 1880. The Saigon-Cholon line was built and completed very quickly thereafter, opening on December 27, 1881 to immediate success. After a month of operation, the Lieutenant Governor of Cochinchina noted that ridership had already reached two thousand passengers. Eventually, the system was expanded to include regional rail lines to Hoc Mon and Thu Dau Mot, reaching about 72 km in length. In August 1923, after several decades of operation, the tramway was modified to use electricity instead of steam locomotives. The tramway remained in service until the end of the First Indochina War (circa 1953), when it was finally decommissioned.

Ferret ne reste pas inactif. Voulant développer son réseau vers le nord de Saïgon, il demande et obtient le 17 décembre 1898 la concession d'une ligne Govap - Hocmon. Le 8 mai 1899, la construction d'un embranchement entre Dakao et le troisième pont de l'avalanche est également autorisée. L'augmentation du trafic qui en résulte nécessite la commande d'un important matériel.

En 1911, les dirigeants de la compagnie demandent à substituer la traction électrique à la traction vapeur sur certaines lignes. En novembre 1913, le gouvernement autorise les CFTI à électrifier le Saïgon - Cholon par la route basse, et à prolonger cette ligne jusqu'au marché de Binh Tay. A l'issue de cette opération, les CFTI voient leurs recettes augmenter de 75 %. Le 30 avril 1916, l'électrification est étendue à certaines lignes du centre de Saïgon. A la même époque, l'ancienne ligne SGVTC du tramway de Cholon par la route haute, rapidement abandonnée par la colonie, est déposée et ses emprises aussitôt récupérées pour la construction d'une grande avenue rectiligne unissant Saïgon au centre de Cholon. Les CFTI en profitent pour installer sur la chaussée une ligne inter-urbaine électrifiée à double-voie, qui n'a évidemment plus rien à voir avec le premier chemin de fer d'Indochine. Par la suite, la compagnie construit également une ligne électrifiée de Go Vap à Thu Dau Mot par Lai Thieu. Un autre prolongement de 32 kilomètres reliera Thua Dau Mot à Ben Dong So, où une correspondance est assurée avec la ligne Chemins de fer de l'Indochine (CFI) de Loc Ninh. Cette section sera toujours exploitée en traction vapeur. En 1939, la CFTI dispose ainsi d'un réseau d'une centaine de kilomètres de long, électrifié aux trois quarts. L'ensemble est alimenté par trois sous-stations. fr:Compagnie française des tramways de l'Indochine

Saigon–My Tho railway
The first regional rail line in Viet Nam (as opposed to a tramway) was built in 1881–1885, and linked Saigon to the nearby town of My Tho, a distance of around 71 km. The Saigon–My Tho line was originally proposed in 1880 by Charles Le Myre de Vilers, Governor of Cochinchina from 1879 to 1882, as part of a much larger rail network. The proposal—of which only the Saigon–My Tho segment was ever approved—called for a railway linking Saigon and Vinh Long, with a northwestern line continuing on to Long Xuyen, Chau Doc and Phnom Penh, and a southwestern line to Can Tho, Soc Trang and Bac Lieu.

http://books.google.ca/books?id=b_9WAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA411&dq=gare+saigon+1881&hl=en&ei=y7qhTsOwBKPj0QGu4cyLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEEQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=gare%20saigon%201881&f=false

http://books.google.ca/books?id=2Q0uAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA182&dq=gare+saigon+1881&hl=en&ei=y7qhTsOwBKPj0QGu4cyLBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=saigon&f=false

Planning of the line was carried out by Eyraud de Vergnes, chief engineer for Cochinchina's Department of Public Works, with construction coordinated by a French engineer named Joret. Construction of the line was marred by conflicts between Joret and Charles Thomson, who was appointed Governor of Cochinchina in 1883. As a result, the line was incomplete upon inauguration on July 20, 1885, missing a railway bridge at Ben Luc. Although the new service was well received, passengers were required to disembark at Ben Luc and cross the Vam Co Dong River by boat. The bridge was finally completed in May 1886, allowing travel straight through to My Tho, which reduced travel time between the two cities from 12 hours to only 3 hours, and established a connection between Saigon and the shipping lanes of the Mekong Delta. The railway would be shut down and dismantled several decades later, in 1959, to allow for the expansion of the road network.

Phu Lang Thuong–Lang Son railway
The first railway in Tonkin was a gauge line connecting Lang Son to Phu Lang Thuong (now known as Bac Giang). Originally conceived as a Decauville railway meant for provisioning troops stationed in Lang Son and Cao Bang, it was upgraded to use heavier track, while keeping the smaller gauge.

Construction, which began in May 1890, was initially expected to be completed in eight months, but repeated setbacks—including lack of manpower, attacks by looters, and kidnappings—pushed its completion back several years. Similarly, although costs were initially estimated at around four to five million francs, the total cost of construction eventually reached around 20 million francs. Jean Marie Antoine de Lanessan, at that time the Governor of French Indochina, inaugurated the line in December 1894. Upon completion, trains completed the journey between Phu Lang Thuong and Lang Son in five and a half hours. After the appointment of Paul Doumer to the position of Governor, the line was converted to metre gauge and expanded: first south to Hanoi in 1900, then north to the Chinese border at Dong Dang in 1902.

Early 20th century expansion (1897–1939)
The Vietnamese railway network saw its greatest expansion during the appointment of Paul Doumer as Governor-General of French Indochina from 1897 to 1902. Doumer's predecessor, Jean Marie de Lanessan, had been convinced of the necessity of building railways to connect the different parts of Indochina, and had identified certain key routes that should be built as a matter of priority; among these, a route connecting Hanoi and Saigon, and another connecting Hanoi and Lao Cai. Doumer incorporated these, along with several more of de Lanessan's suggestions, in plans he submitted for the approval of the French administration soon after his appointment in 1897. The plans included proposals for a Haiphong–Kunming line, which would become the Yunnan–Vietnam Railway; and the North–South Railway connecting Hanoi and Saigon. Also proposed were several more branch lines to connect different parts of Indochina, including a link from Quy Nhon to Kontum, a branch line leading from the Chinese province of Guangxi to Savannakhet in Laos, and a line connecting Saigon and Phnom Penh.

Of Doumer's submitted plans, only certain routes were approved by the French administration in 1898; of these, only one—the Yunnan–Vietnam Railway, linking Haiphong to Kunming—was accepted in its entirety. The other routes that were given initial approval were Hanoi–Vinh, Tourane–Hue–Guangxi, Saigon–Nha Trang–Langbiang, and Saigon–My Tho–Vinh Long–Can Tho. None of Doumer's other proposed lines were ever implemented in their entirety, although the first 17 km of the Tan Ap—Thakhek line into Laos were built before construction was abandoned.

The Hanoi–Haiphong line was completed in 1902, as was the Hanoi–Dong Dang line (a refurbishment of the earlier Phu Lang Thuong–Lang Son line ), connecting Hanoi with China and with Haiphong Port on the South China Sea.

The railway communications of French IndoChina comprise lines from Hai - Phong to Lao - Kay, continued thence via the Nam-Te valley to Yun-nan; from Hanoi northward to Lang-Son and south to Vinh; from Tourane to Kwang-Tri via Hue and from Kan-Tho (Cochin-China) to Khanh-Hoa (Annam) via My-Tho, Saigon, Bien-Hoa and Jiring with branches to Phan-Tiet and Phan-Rang. The three last are the completed sections of a line which will unite Tongking with Cochin-China. -- 1911 Encyc. Brittanica

On the 10th of December 1898 M. Doumer obtained from parliament authorization to contract a loan of 200,000,000 francs, the proceeds of which were appropriated to the construction of railway lines. -- 1911 Encyc. Brittanica

As of 1925, around 2373 km of track had been laid down throughout the entire Indochinese railway network; by the end of 1939, that number had increased to 3372 km, an increase of almost 1000 km in 14 years.

Hanoi tramway
Another project launched at this time was the Hanoi tramway, which entered service in November 1901, operated by the Compagnie des Tramways électriques d'Hanoi et extensions (Hanoi & Extensions Electric Tramway Company). The central tramway station was located at Place Négrier, a plaza on the north side of Hoan Kiem Lake. It consisted of five tram lines totalling around 29 km, including routes leading to Bach Mai, Yen Thai, Tan Ap, and Ha Dong. The Hanoi tramway eventually outlived its southern counterpart in Saigon, finally being decommissioned in 1990.

Yunnan–Vietnam Railway
Doumer expected that the establishment of a railway line leading into resource-rich Yunnan would allow France to gain a foothold there, which fell in line with France's desire to use Indochina as a stepping stone to gaining privileged access to the Chinese market. The Haiphong railway, which began construction in 1900, was the first leg of the Yunnan–Vietnam Railway to be completed. The Hanoi–Lao Cai leg was opened in segments beginning in 1903, finally reaching Lao Cai in 1906. Beginning in 1906, the railway was extended to Kunming, finally opening in 1910. The construction of the Yunnan line was not without controversy, nor without consequences; over 25,000 workers, both Vietnamese and Chinese, died working on the line. Long Bien Bridge was constructed to allow uninterrupted rail traffic along the Yunnan–Vietnam line; construction of the bridge started in 1898 and was completed in 1902. It was inaugurated as Paul Doumer Bridge, and was the largest bridge in Southeast Asia at that time.

Yun-nan Fu is connected by railway (1910) with Tongking. The line hich starts from Haiphong runs, in Yun-nan, via Mengtsze hsien (a great commercial centre), to the capital. -- 1991 EB

North–South Railway
In 1895, outgoing Governor of Indochina de Lanessan urged his successors to give priority to the construction of a north–south railway connecting Hanoi and Saigon, calling it "the backbone of Indochina" from which all other routes would radiate. Construction of the North–South Railway began in 1899, and lasted over thirty years, with individual sections completed serially: from 1899 to 1905, the Hanoi–Vinh section was laid down, followed by the Nha Trang–Saigon section from 1905 to 1913 (the Saigon–Tan Linh section was opened in 1908, followed by the Tan Linh–Nha Trang section in 1913 ), then the Vinh-Hue section from 1913 to 1927, and finally, the remaining Hue–Nha Trang section from 1930 to 1936. Tracks linking Hue south to Tourane and north to Dong Ha were established earlier, in 1906 and 1908, respectively. On 2 October 1936, the entire 1726 km Hanoi–Saigon link was formally put into full operation. The first journeys from end to end of the newly completed line, dubbed the Transindochinois, generally took about 60 hours, or two days and three nights. This decreased to about 40 hours by the late 1930s, with trains travelling at an average speed of 43 kph. Trains were generally pulled by French Pacific 231-500 or Mikado locomotives, and included cars with regular seating as well as sleeping cars (voitures-couchettes), dining cars, mail cars and baggage cars.

Tan Ap–Thakhek
Doumer's research led him to consider a link from the Vietnamese railway network into Laos, but due to the low commercial viability of such a line, plans for the line were shelved as work proceeded on higher-priority lines. The exploitation of tin deposits in Thakhek in the 1920s encouraged the French to give priority to a railway line connecting Thakhek to Tan Ap, south of Vinh on the North–South line. The 187 km line was designed in 1931, including a tunnel under the Mu Gia Pass, to be funded by French capital. By 1933, the first 17.5 km had been constructed west of Tan Ap, and were opened to traffic. The line was originally due to be completed by 1936, but construction was eventually abandoned when the economic returns proved to be too low to warrant continuing.

Da Lat–Thap Cham Railway
Doumer's original plans were adapted to provide a railway link connecting Da Lat and Thap Cham in Ninh Thuan Province, at a cost of 200 million francs. Initial surveys took place in 1898, and construction began on the 38 km Tháp Chàm–Sông Pha section in 1908. The Tháp Chàm–Sông Pha section opened in 1919, and the second section, running 43 km from Sông Pha to Đà Lạt, opened in 1932.

Saigon–Loc Ninh
In 1933, a 69 km French-built railway line connecting Loc Ninh in Binh Phuoc Province to Ben Dong Xo was opened. The line was connected to the main North–South line in 1937, connecting Loc Ninh to Saigon via Di An. The route from Di An to Loc Ninh was a privately operated line with 17 railway stations. The line was abandoned after 1959, and was dismantled at the conclusion of the Vietnam War.

Wartime (1940–1979)
Ce n'est qu'à la fin des années 90 que la ligne repris un service comparable à son fonctionnement durant les années 30, après une longue campagne de réhabilitation, mais elle fonctionne toujours avec d'antiques locomotives diesel-électriques.

World War II


From the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the railway into Yunnan served as a channel for arms shipments to the Chinese Kuomintang. French refusal to halt shipments of arms and other war-related goods to China through Tonkin eventually provoked the Invasion of French Indochina by Japanese forces in 1940. The Japanese used the railway system extensively during their occupation, inviting sabotage by the Viet Minh as well as airborne Allied bombing raids. The railways sustained considerable damage, including the destruction of bridges.

From the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, the railway connecting Yunnan with Haiphong served as a channel for arms shipments to the Chinese Kuomintang, backed by a number of French politicians and businessmen. Japan demanded the cessation of all shipments of war-related goods to China through Tonkin, but the French administration turned a deaf ear to their concerns. In fact, despite Japanese protests, shipping along the Yunnan–Haiphong line continued to grow, from 3,000 tons per month in 1937 to 20,000 tons per month in 1940; around half consisted of arms, fuel and materials supplied by the Allies. Japan retaliated by invading and occupying French Indochina in 1940.

With the capture of Lanzhow the highway was closed but a rail line still permitted shipment of material from Haiphong to Yunnan. Despite bombing by the Japanese the Yunnan railway remained open.

Under pressure from Japan, France closed the line on 16 July 1940 to cut supplies to China during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

After the Invasion of French Indochina during World War II, Japanese forces used the Vietnamese railway system extensively, inviting sabotage by the Viet Minh as well as American bombing from the air. The railways sustained considerable damage, including the destruction of bridges.

Following the exit of the Japanese at the end of the war, efforts were made to repair the seriously damaged North–South line.

Longtemps cible stratégique depuis l'agression japonaise sur la Chine en 1937 (Guerre sino-japonaise) à la fin de la guerre du Vietnam, ses infrastructures furent lourdement endommagées.


 * depuis 1937, le Japon reprochait aux Français de ravitailler le Guomingdang en armes via le Trans-indochinois. En 1940, cela deviendra un point majeur lors des négociations entre les interlocuteurs Japonais et le Gouverneur Général d'alors, le général Georges Catroux.


 * bombardements alliés durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale.

http://www.anai-asso.org/NET/document/loeuvre_de_la_france/loeuvre_de_la_france/infrastructures_terrestres_et_portuaires/les_chemins_de_fer_de_lindochine/index.htm

L'occupation japonaise de l'été 1940 porta un coup d'autant plus sévère à la souveraineté française que les mesures prises par l'amiral Decoux (gouverneur général de 1940 à 1945) ne purent empêcher les Japonais de prétendre à la mobilisation de notre réseau ferré pour leurs transferts de personnel et de matériel de guerre de la Chine vers les théâtres d'opérations plus méridionaux. En réaction, les forces alliées attaquèrent sans relâche le réseau ferré, détruisant ponts, ateliers, gares, matériels, empêchant la circulation normale sur la totalité des lignes. La propagande pan asiatique des Japonais suscita une aspiration à l'indépendance chez de nombreux Indochinois, qui furent en outre poussés à la révolte après le coup de force du 9 mars 1945. Le général Leclerc arriva à Saïgon le 5 octobre 1945, mais c'était déjà trop tard pour éviter la destruction du réseau ferroviaire. Aidés par les Japonais, les indépendantistes s'en sont pris au personnel fidèle, l'ont dispersé ou tué, ont pillé les magasins, détruit les gares, saboté les voies et les ouvrages d'art, les lignes téléphoniques et télégraphiques. Considérablement affaibli par les bombardements alliés, le réseau fut totalement paralysé pendant quelques mois à la suite de cette révolte intérieure qui avait gangrené le pays.

The first route took the crews from Chungking to Guiyang, down to Dong Dang (at the border of Vietnam) and then through Hanoi to Hai Phong. This route was probably used somewhere from April to July of 1939. Alfred Turner, one of the Falcon's crew during this period, appears to have taken this route. Alfred Turner's son, Graham Turner, has related that trucks were used all the way to Dong Dang, the remaining journey occurring by train. [...]

The French had built, and were operating the steam-hauled, single-track Yunnan Railway which ran between Kunming, Lao Kai, Hanoi and Haiphong. The northern half dropped from the Yunnan Plateau through the mountains to the flatter, jungle country to the south. On the mountainous stretch there were one hundred and seventy-two tunnels and one hundred and seven major bridges, the most spectacular being the Butterfly Bridge (two inverted cantilevers spanning a gorge with a tunnel at each end) and the Lace Bridge (a tall and graceful lattice structure with a tunnel at the northern end). The journey to the Chinese Indo­China frontier promised superb views. It also promised trouble. Japanese bomb­ing had destroyed one bridge, but a shuttle service was operating either side of the damaged section.

Coaches had been reserved on a train which left Kunming at 08.00 hrs on January 31st and that evening they reached the wrecked bridge. It was still under repair, so all the passengers and their gear had to be transferred to another train waiting on the far side. Next day they crossed the Lace Bridge about 14.30 hrs and just beyond waited in a loopline at Paochai Station for a northbound train to pass. Immediately after it had gone by, they heard the familiar drone of Japanese bombers. Everyone jumped out and threw themselves down on the embankment while two waves of twenty-seven bombers made unopposed attacks on the Lace Bridge from about 5,000 feet.

Although the gorge below was pitted with craters, the Lace Bridge was undamaged, while the northbound train had taken cover in the short tunnel. This was its undoing. Bombs had burst in the tunnel mouth at each end and their blast had totally shattered the heavy wooden carriages. The tunnel was pitch dark and full of choking dust and smoke, from which came the cries of the injured. There were some torches but most of the rescue work had to be done by feel and sound. The heavier baulks of timber could not be dislodged and protruding limbs which felt cold when touched were left. Others, dangling, had to be snipped off by the doctors before their owners could be moved. In the engine was the grisly sight of the driver and fireman roasting against the firebox where they had been hurled. After three hours the sailors and local Chinese had extricated about a hundred casualties and had carried them to the southbound train. This was less than half the number known to be on the train and did not include any of the French passengers. The train arrived at Lao Kai about 00.30 hrs. The casualties were taken to the French hospital, the two Royal Navy doctors helping there for the rest of the night.

Next evening their train reached Gai Lam junction near Hanoi where they were met by the Director of the Railway and the ADC to the Governor of Tongking. A special rail car was laid on for the last lap to Haiphong where a heroes' welcome awaited them. A fleet of bicyclettes-pousse-pousse (trishaws) whisked them to the docks and the local British community raised a fund to give everyone a night ashore before sailing in the ss Yu Sang. Butterfield and Swire provided a free quart of beer a day for each man during the three-day passage to Hong Kong. Presently they boarded a P & 0 liner, bound for the United Kingdom; their China adventures were over.

Immediately after the August Revolution, August 28, 1945, President Ho Chi Minh City has officially signed decision on the establishment of the Ministry of Public Works and Transport Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, including the Department of Xa - State Office of Management and exploitation of Vietnam Railways. And from here, the Vietnam Railway system has actually become the property of Vietnam.

First Indochina War
Shortly after World War II ended, the First Indochina War began, and the Viet Minh's sabotage of the rail system continued, this time against the armies of the French Union. The French returned several sections of the railway to full operation, allowing trains to circulate freely from Saigon to Ninh Hoa, Saigon to Loc Ninh, Saigon to My Tho and Hue to Tourane (Da Nang) by the end of 1947. The sections lying between Nha Trang and Tourane and north of Hue were judged to be too insecure to be returned to service at the time.

Early in the conflict, the Viet Minh's sabotage attempts failed to seriously damage the French railways, and most trains circulated without much protection. Beginning in 1947, however, the Viet Minh began to use mines, with circulation slowing to a crawl as they became more and more powerful. In response, the French began using the armed armoured train La Rafale as both a cargo-carrier and a mobile surveillance unit. In February 1951 the first Rafale was in service on the Saigon-Nha Trang section of the North–South line, manned by the 2e Etranger (French Foreign Legion). Use of the Rafale failed to deter the Viet Minh, however, who continued sabotaging the line, making off with its rails under cover of night and using them to create a new 300 km rail network between Ninh Hoa and Da Nang, in a Viet Minh-controlled area. In 1954, following the signature of the Geneva Accords and the end of the First Indochina War, Vietnam—along with its railway system—was divided along the Ben Hai River in Quang Tri Province.

Shortly after World War II ended, the First Indochina War began, and the Viet Minh's sabotage of the rail system continued, this time against the armies of the French Union. Appeals were made to France to supply the colony with the materials necessary to return the entire network to working condition, despite continuing attacks. The French government acquiesced, and the ensuing aid allowed trains to circulate once more between Saigon and Ninh Hoa (north of Nha Trang)—as well as along the Loc Ninh and My Tho lines—by mid-1946. The Hue–Tourane section was reopened on October 15, 1947. The section lying between Nha Trang and Tourane was judged to be too insecure to be returned to service at the time, and likewise, circumstances prevented the reopening of the section north of Hue. Later, in February 1953, Railway Progress magazine would report that of the original 1355 mi of right-of-way tracks composing the Vietnamese railway network, only 570 mi remained in operation.

Early on during the conflict, in 1946, the French created the Military Railway Service (Service Militaire du Chemin de Fer, or SMCF), allowing the railway company and the military to join forces to assure the regular operation of rail transport, with a view to supplying the army with personnel and materials as well assuring the steady operation of local commerce. Through the operation of the SMCF, railway stations were fortified, watchtowers were built, telegraph and telephone lines were installed, and armoured escorts began to accompany trains.

At the beginning of this period, the Viet Minh's methods of sabotage were relatively few and rudimentary—trenches would be dug under rails, removing fishplates or rails from curves or near bridges. Most trains circulated without much protection. Beginning in 1947, however, the Viet Minh began to use mines, with circulation slowing to a crawl as they became more and more powerful. In response, the French began using the armed armoured train La Rafale as both a cargo-carrier and a mobile surveillance unit. In February 1951 the first Rafale was in service on the Saigon-Nha Trang section of the North–South line, manned by the 2e Etranger (French Foreign Legion).

Use of the Rafale failed to deter the Viet Minh guerrillas, however, who continued sabotaging the line, making off with its rails under cover of night and using them to create a new 300km rail network between Ninh Hoa and Da Nang, in a Viet Minh-controlled area, where they began to operate small trains of their own. In 1953, the Viet Minh sabotaged Baika viaduct, located along a portion of the Col des Nuages. A strong remote charge was placed on the viaduct and detonated as a northbound train arrived, causing a derailment that sent two locomotives and 18 cars pluging into the ravine below it. Initial estimates claimed that "about 100 or more" were killed in the attack, although the number was later revised to 20 killed, 46 wounded.

In 1954, following the signature of Geneva Accords and the end of the First Indochina War, Vietnam was temporarily divided into two parts: the communist North and anti-communist South. The North–South Railway was bisected accordingly at Hien Luong Bridge, a bridge over the Ben Hai River in Quang Tri Province.

Vietnam War
Throughout the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese railway network—especially the North–South Railway—was a target of bombardments and sabotage by both North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese forces. In the South, American aid allowed the South Vietnamese government to reconstruct the main line between Saigon and Hue, and several branch lines were also completed. As reconstruction efforts advanced, however, bombardments and sabotage of the railways by the Viet Cong and the North Vietnamese intensified, reducing the transportation capacity and effectiveness of the railway, and eventually forcing the abandonment of many large sections of the track. In 1964, Typhoons Joan and Iris, the worst to strike Vietnam in sixty-five years, damaged the railway system even further, restricting operations to five separated segments. A second reconstruction effort, assisted again by the U.S. government, began in December 1966, and progressed in those areas where security was re-established. The system reopened 340 kilometers of main line in areas where security was restored.

In North Vietnam, American bombing of railways was concentrated on key targets such as bridges, both along the North–South Railway and along the lines north of Hanoi, such as the Hanoi–Lao Cai and Hanoi–Dong Dang lines. At several points during the war, American bombing severely hindered transport along both lines, on which the North Vietnamese depended for shipments from their Chinese allies. Operation Rolling Thunder was the first large-scale bombing campaign carried out by the U.S. Air Force, taking place from March 2, 1965 until November 1, 1968, when US President Lyndon B. Johnson temporarily called off air raids. Large-scale air raids resumed from May 9 to October 23, 1972, for Operation Linebacker, and again from December 18–29, 1972, for Operation Linebacker II, with fewer target restrictions than Rolling Thunder.

Railway engineering troops from the People's Republic of China, deployed in late June 1965, were tasked with repairing the damage caused by the bombing. By late December of that year, reconstruction was complete on 363 kilometers of both the Hanoi–Lao Cai and Hanoi–Dong Dang lines, significantly increasing shipping capacity; as well, a third rail was added to the existing lines, using standard gauge spacing, effectively converting them to mixed gauge lines. This allowed Chinese trains to connect directly with the Vietnamese railway network, without the need for a break-of-gauge. Many new stations, bridges and tunnels were also built, and an entirely new rail line, the Thai Nguyen–Kep line, was built as a strategic connection between the Hanoi–Dong Dang and Hanoi–Thai Nguyen lines.

A particularly difficult target for U.S. Air Force bombers was the Thanh Hoa Bridge, a well-defended combined road/rail bridge along the main line in Thanh Hoa Province. The bridge was attacked several times from 1965 to 1972. Several times, traffic over the bridge was interrupted, but every time, the North Vietnamese were able to repair the damage. The bridge was eventually destroyed by laser-guided smart bombs during separate raids on April 27 and May 13, 1972, as part of Operation Linebacker.

Throughout the Vietnam War, the Vietnamese railway network—especially the North–South Railway—was a target of bombardments and sabotage by both North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese forces.

After the Fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975, the Communist government of the newly unified Vietnam took control of the former South Vietnamese railway. Heavily damaged, the war-torn North–South Railway line was nevertheless restored and returned to service on 31 December 1976, promoted as a symbol of Vietnamese unity. In the short time between the surrender of the South and the reopening of the line, 1334 bridges, 27 tunnels, 158 stations and 1370 switches had been repaired. Other railway lines that once existed, such as the Da Lat-Thap Cham line, were dismantled during this period to provide materials for the repair of the main line.

South Vietnam


Immediately after the Geneva Agreement in 1954, the new South Vietnamese government formed a semiautonomous railway agency, the Vietnam Railway System, which was immediately tasked with the reconstruction of the railway system. By August 1959, reconstruction of the main line (a distance of 1041 km between Saigon and Hue) was complete, and several branch lines were also completed (the Loc Ninh branch being an exception). The reconstruction work included the laying of 200 km of new tracks.

From 1960 to 1964, with the material and advisory help of allies such as the United States and Australia, the Vietnamese Railway System operated scheduled freight and passenger trains on the entire line, transporting approximately half a million tons of cargo and four million passengers annually. The economics of moving cargo by rail, plus the advantage of releasing trucks for work in the provinces, made rail traffic attractive to the Vietnamese Army and U.S. military. The system was used to support the construction program of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam and transported rock and gravel to air base and highway sites.

As reconstruction efforts advanced in South Vietnam, however, bombardments and sabotage of the railways by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese regular units intensified. 795 attacks were launched between 1961 and 1964 alone, reducing the transportation capacity and effectiveness of the railway, and eventually forcing the South to abandon many large sections of the track. In November 1964, typhoons Joan and Iris, the worst to strike Vietnam in sixty-five years, did considerable damage to the railway system and, with unabated Viet Cong sabotage, the railway was severed in many places with operations restricted to five separated segments. In mid-1965, both the North–South railway and the parallel Highway One were both cut in numerous places. For all practical purposes, the main North–South line ceased to exist after 1965, many sections having been either completely destroyed by sabotage or left to fall into disrepair after maintaining track security became impossible.

In 1966 the U.S. government through the Agency for International Development pledged further support in commodities provided that the Vietnamese took the initiative to secure and reopen the rail system. This action was sanctioned by the U.S. military, which acquired and brought into the country two hundred rail cars and ten switching locomotives to supplement the fleet of Vietnamese rolling stock for the handling of military cargo. This second reconstruction effort began in December 1966 and progressed in those areas where security was re-established. During this second reconstruction period the U.S. government assisted with U.S. $11 million in commodity grants. The system reopened 340 kilometers of main line in areas where security was restored. The government subsidized the road for this reconstruction in the amount of Vietnamese $211 million, in addition to the subsidy for operations or sabotage. The railway contributed significantly to the war effort, the pacification program, and the economic growth of South Vietnam. For instance, a considerable amount of the rock aggregate used in the construction of the Tuy Hoa and Phu Cat airfields, as well as Route 1 and other highways, was transported by rail. As of early 1971 the railroad was in operation in three separate areas with approximately 60 percent, or 710 kilometers, of the 1,240 kilometers of main line and branch line track in use. The longest run, approximately 400 kilometers, from Song Long Song to Phu Cat handled a number of rock trains daily for highway construction work. Military cargo from Qui Nhon and Cam Ranh Bay still moves by rail to Phu Cat, Tuy Hoa, Ninh Hoa, Nha Trang, and Phan Rang. The system also transports approximately 11,000 passengers weekly over this line. Another segment of 103 kilometers from Hue to Da Nang, which was reopened in January 1969, has averaged approximately 2,000 tons of cargo and 1,500 passengers a week. The remaining 80 kilometers from Saigon to Xuan Loc, serving the Thu Duc industrial area and the Long Binh and Newport military complex play an important role in transporting civilian and military cargo Operation of this line has eliminated a large number of truck run; from the congested streets of Saigon and the Bien Hoa Highway Three round-trip passenger trains operate daily over this section of the road, transporting an average of 40,000 commuters a week.

The entire road program, both the rail and vehicular systems; has undergone a tremendous change as has Vietnam. The bridge reconstruction portion of the road program involved the building of approximately five hundred bridges totaling over 30,000 meters, During mid-1968, Army engineers were constructing highways to MACV standards at an equivalent rate of 285 kilometers per year. At the same time, they were building bases and supporting combat operations-including land clearing, tactical roads, tactical airfields, landing zones, and fire bases. Road construction has continually been paced by crushed rock production and rock-hauling capability. The Army relied on the contractor's crushers for 38 percent of the 180,000 cubic yards of rock required monthly to maintain a construction rate of 285 kilometers per year in 1968.

As of 1971 - 1972, the Republic of Vietnam has 1,240 km of railway, but because of war and security, only 57% was used. However, the total volume of passengers and goods transported by railways increased. Specifically:


 * In 1968, total cargo transport volume of 400,000 tons, 0.73 million passengers;
 * In 1969, total cargo transport volume of 530,000 tons, 1.75 million passengers;
 * In 1970, total cargo transport volume of 720,000 tons, 2.4 million passengers;

The Vietnam National Railway System was government owned, being operated under the supervision of the Ministry of Communications and Transportation. The Vietnam National Railway System originated at Saigon, and served the entire coastal area from Phan Thiet to Dong Ha. (Map 4) The overall condition of the roadbed and rolling stock was poor. The long period of intense interdiction and destruction by the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese regular units resulted in the railway system being unable to carry significant tonnages. The railroad was well engineered, however, with 413 bridges, 27 tunnels, controlling grades of less than 1½ percent, steel ties, and vertical elevations well above the waterways. In 1969, the rolling stock of the railroad consisted of 59 serviceable locomotives and over 500 serviceable freight cars. The major repair facility located in Saigon was well equipped to perform major engine and car repair. Other shop facilities along the length of the line were adequate to handle all types of minor repairs. The railroad employs approximately 3,500 personnel (operating crews, maintenance and construction forces). Overall planning for railway restoration began in June 1966 as a joint effort by the Government of Vietnam and U.S. agencies. All reconstruction efforts were coordinated through three standing committees composed of members of Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, Government of Vietnam, U.S. Agency for International Development, and the Government of Vietnam Joint General Staff with primary responsibility for railway restoration resting with the joint Committee on railroad restoration. Actual construction was the responsibility of the Vietnam National Railway System except that rail spurs to U.S. military installations were funded and built by US forces. U.S. Agency for International Development furnished construction materials such as rail, ties, structured steel, bridge trusses, and equipment. Funds programed for railway restoration were limited as shown in the following table:

(table)

Vietnamese personnel operated the engines, did their own repair work, and restored sections of track destroyed by the Viet Cong. To help the Vietnamese keep up to date, the U.S. Army assigned technical advisors to the railroad, but for the most part, the Vietnamese ran the whole operation.

Railway operations in Vietnam expanded in direct proportion to the interest and effort put forth by the U.S. And the Government of Vietnam. Besides providing low cost military transportation, railways helped the South Vietnamese in their social and economic development.

North Vietnam
In North Vietnam, American bombing of railways was concentrated on key targets such as railway bridges, both along the North–South Railway and along the lines north of Hanoi, such as the Hanoi–Lao Cai and Hanoi–Dong Dang lines. Operation Rolling Thunder was the first large-scale bombing campaign carried out by the U.S. Air Force, taking place from March 2, 1965 until November 1, 1968, when US President Lyndon B. Johnson temporarily called off air raids. Large-scale air raids resumed from May 9 to October 23, 1972, for Operation Linebacker, and again from December 18–29, 1972, for Operation Linebacker II, with fewer target restrictions than Rolling Thunder.A particularly difficult target for the U.S. Air Force was the Thanh Hoa Bridge, a well-defended combined road/rail bridge in Thanh Hoa Province. One of the first attacks on the bridge took place on April 3–4, 1965. Despite dropping 239 tons of bombs on the bridge during the raid, the bridge remained serviceable; additionally, three American F-105 aircraft were shot down during the raid. The U.S. Navy also conducted Alpha strikes on the bridge. Several times, traffic over the bridge was interrupted, but every time, the North Vietnamese dutifully repaired the damage. The bridge was eventually destroyed by laser-guided smart bombs during separate raids on April 27 and May 13, 1972, as part of Operation Linebacker.


 * In 10 years (1954-1964), Northern Railway system has been built and restored to the main road, Hanoi - Lao Cai, Ha Noi - Hai Phong, Hanoi - Lang Son. The route has had an important role for transport, economic recovery in the North for many years that time and still be effective now. The other a railway was built, Hanoi - Thai Nguyen also completed with 164 km in this period.
 * Rail Transportation in 10 years (1954-1964) was undertaken on 20% of the mass transport of the whole transport sector, implementation of the output flow of goods over 50%. [Citation needed]
 * Industrial Railway was formed with a number of subjects but also self-limited but has produced a number of service sectors, most notably factory in Gia Lam Train carriages have formed many workshops important premise for the shipbuilding industry after this Railway workshop repair locomotives, train cars, forging, casting, etc. ..


 * Northern Railway destructive war against the North American and support for the Liberation of South Vietnam. This is the first marking period of growth and proliferation of Railway since its establishment. Two prominent features of the sector is that period for the career development and strengthen economic support for the North and the struggle against the war in South America. Also in this period, Railway received a significant investment of state aid and help of international friends, especially the help of the Soviet Union and China.
 * The outstanding events of the sector mark at this stage is to maintain transport of aid and troops transported on the route from north to Vinh Movement "All for the South loved" by the Ho Chi Minh launched.
 * Railway, ensuring continuous communication throughout the U.S. to invade conditions were severe. Railways did 3915 meters of temporary bridges, 82 kilogram and 274.5 kilogram meter meter cord and transport information was 4.16 million tons of cargo. Officers, employees and safeguard Railway has shot down dozens of aircraft types and detect break a thousand bomb key battleground in the South.
 * The head of the Northern Railway at this stage is the General Director of Vietnam Post Indian - he was bold mark with victories in the industry as a traditional radiant Railway later.

Continuous US air raids remained our major issue. [...] The U.S. bombing almost cut off the two major rail lines, the Hanoi–Youyiguan (or He–You, the eastern line) and Hanoi–Lao Cai (or He–Lao, the northwestern line) railroads. When the Chinese railway engineering troops arrived in late June 1965, many parts of the railways were severely damaged and not functioning. Moreover, the tracks were French-built meter gauge [1,000 mm] rails, and hard to be replaced. The division command decided to reconstruct these two old railways with the standard track gauge [1,435 mm] by adding the third rail to the meter gauge tracks [...] which could double the shipping capacity by using both Vietnamese and standard locomotives and cargo cars. Meanwhile, the rail transports continued without interruption during the railway makeovers. [...]

By December 23, 1965, our division had completed reconstruction of 363 kilometers of two rail lines by spending 757,000 work days. The reconstruction significantly increased shipping capacity. [...T]he Hanoi–Youyiguan line almost doubled its annual transport capacity, an increase from 1.4 million tons to 2.8 million tons. The reconstruction also improved these two railroads by adding dozens of new train stations, bridges, and tunnels. [...] Our division headquarters also designed a new strategic, standard gauge railroad between Kep and Thai Nguyen to serve as an east-west circuitous supplementary link between the Hanoi–Thai Nguyen and Hanoi–Youyiguan north-south lines. [...]

According to our division's estimates, from June 1965 to October 1968, the American airplanes dropped 288,000 bombs along these railways. In the peak month of June 1967, the American planes dropped 9.6 tons of ordnance per kilometer of these railways, and 2.5–6.3 tons per meter of the major railway bridges.

On August 11, 1967, the U.S. Air Force heavily bombed the Long Bien Bridge [...] Despite frequent air raids, the Chinese troops worked day and night and completed their repair within eighteen days. On September 30, the rail traffic resumed over the bridge.

Between August 1965 and February 1969, the First Division had accomplished 1,178 repair missions for damaged railways and facilities, disarmed 3,100 time-delay bombs, rebuilt 157 kilometers of destroyed railway tracks, built 39 new rail bridges, constructed 14 tunnels, laid 8 kilometers of underwater cable, and repaired 1,420 kilometers of railroad telephone lines. [...] Our troops stayed in Vietnam until 1970.

Sino-Vietnamese War
The outbreak of the Sino–Vietnamese War in 1979 resulted in the closing of borders, including railways; particularly, the railway bridge that connected Lao Cai and Hekou on the Yunnan–Vietnam line was destroyed by sabotage during the conflict. Rail traffic between the two countries would eventually resume in 1992.

Also, the military clashes along the border during the second half of the 1970s – in particular in connection with the Chinese attack on Vietnam in February and March 1979 – have left some areas in dispute along the border. Among the more notable of these areas is the 300 meters between the provinces of Guangxi and Lang Son, which prevented the re-opening of the railway between the two countries during the first half of the 1990s. Eventually an agreement was reached to do so in February 1996.xiii The area has been under Chinese control since early 1979 and Vietnam had accused China of occupying it, including Vietnam’s pre 1979 end-station. (http://www.eias.org/publications/briefing/2000/borderdisputes.pdf)

The re-opening of the railway between China and Vietnam, in February 1996, is an event that is particularly relevant to study in the context of the land border issue. The major reason for not resuming the railway traffic earlier during the 1990s was the disputed border area of 300 meters between the provinces of Guangxi and Lang Son. This issue was not settled despite the fact that the railway linking Pingxing and Dong Dang goes through the disputed area.xix Since the area was under Chinese control, the part of the railway passing through it was restored and operated by China. Thus, Vietnam agreed to allow China to control and manage the railway in the area but, Vietnam did not renounce its claim to it. The rationale behind Vietnam’s concession is not publicly known, but one reason could be that Vietnam was looking for expanded economic interaction with China and resumed rail transport would facilitate official trade. It could also be that Vietnam obtained Chinese concessions on other matters in exchange. However, since Vietnam did not renounce its sovereignty claim to the area, it is unlikely that China made any concessions on the territorial issues, nor that China can be expected to be more amenable to Vietnamese claims to other disputed areas along the land border or in relation to the other border disputes. With the signing of the Land Border Treaty and the demarcation process to be carried out on the ground, all disputed areas along the land border will be settled. (http://www.eias.org/publications/briefing/2000/borderdisputes.pdf)

An agreement “in principle” on railway “transportation” was reached during the visit by the then Secretary General of the CPV, Do Muoi, to China on 26 November to 2 December 1995 (For the text of the “Sino-Vietnamese Joint Communiqué” see ibid., 2477 G/1–2 (4 December 1995)). During the months of January and February 1996, bilateral relations focused on the preparations for the resumption of railway traffic. Discussions between the Chinese Ministry of Railways and the Vietnamese Ministry of Communication and Transport were held and custom procedures were announced on January 31. Furthermore, work on the repair and upgrading of the railway links was carried out enabling the resumption of traffic on 14 February 1996 (ibid., 2518 B/4 (25 January 1996); 2524 B/1; 2525 B/4 (2 February 1996); 2536 B/4 (15 February 1996); and, 2539 G/3 (19 February 1996)). (http://www.eias.org/publications/briefing/2000/borderdisputes.pdf)

The agreement on opening the railway links between the two countries related to linking Dong Dang and Lao Cai on the Vietnamese side with Pingxing and Shanyao respectively on the Chinese side, thus connecting the provinces of Lang Son and Guangxi, and the provinces of Lao Cai and Yunnan, respectively (BBC/FE 2477 B/3; 2494 B/5 (23 December 1995); and, 2524 B/1 (1 February 1996)). (http://www.eias.org/publications/briefing/2000/borderdisputes.pdf)

Post-war
Unification of the country in 1975 saw the re-emergence of a unified railway system, much of which was badly damaged or inoperative.

After the Fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975, the Communist government of the newly-unified Vietnam took control of the former South Vietnamese railway. The heavily damaged, war-torn North–South line was restored and returned to service on 31 December 1976, promoted as a symbol of Vietnamese unity. In the short time between the surrender of the South and the reopening of the line, 1334 bridges, 27 tunnels, 158 stations and 1370 switches had been repaired. Other railway lines that once existed, such as the Da Lat-Thap Cham line, were dismantled during this period to provide materials for the repair of the main line.


 * Heavily damaged, it was nevertheless restored and returned to service in December 1976.

During the Vietnam War, the line was a target of bombardments by both North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese forces. On 31 December 1976, after the Fall of Saigon and the reunification of the country, the severely war-torn railway was fully restored and put into operation.

Period 1975 - 1985, Railways in the construction and protection of national socialist Vietnam. The ravages of war in a long period has seriously affected the transport system in which both Southern Railway, North.


 * Railway has been reorganizing and restructuring our operations and the formation of a new apparatus to function more fully, meet reality. The Management Company under the General Railway Administration moved into the Department and many state enterprises of the Railway was founded and maintained models to operate in 1986.
 * This phase has opened the North-South Railway (Reunification Railway) to the event December 13, 1976 shipment from Ho Chi Minh City to Hanoi and shipments of apatite has been serving agriculture Lao Cai from the road to Ho Chi Minh City. Railway transport has been available but carrying capacity is still limited. New construction over two thousand meters of bridges, 520 culverts, 660 kilogram meters set a new rail line and 1686 kilogram meter information. [Citation needed] Create different looks Vietnam war period the United States.

After unification in 1975, the railway network was centrally managed and operated by the Government’s General Department of Railways. Low tariffs and the underdevelopment of other modes of transport led to large numbers of passengers. However, since railway revenue was insufficient to cover operating costs, the larger the volume of goods and passengers transported by rail the more money the railway lost. Railway subsidies became a huge burden on the state budget.

In 1986, the Government implemented its doi moi policy to change the centrally-planned and subsidized economy into a market-led economy with a socialist orientation and state regulation. One of the major policy objectives was to deregulate transport and restructure state- subsidized transport into independent, self-sustaining, and market-led entities without a need for government support. In the ensuing deregulated transport environment, the railway faced stiff competition from other modes of transport, particularly road transport.

In 1989, the General Department of Railways was reorganized into Duong Sat Viet Nam (Viet Nam Railways), a state-owned enterprise with a mandate to perform competitively in a market environment. Subsidies were to be gradually reduced. However, a rapid deterioration of the railway's finances in the 1990s drastically reduced the potential for profitable operations. The Government began a number of studies to reorganize the railway with the objective of reducing the burden on the state budget and improving the quality of services.


 * Railway, has been gradually upgrading existing rail lines, improving safety and significantly shorten time to run the ship. The bridge and the railway station on Unification was to renovate and upgrade.
 * From 1989 to March 4, 2003, Railway were restructured into a State enterprise named Vietnam Railway Union, operating on the open market principles.
 * From 7 July 2003, the Vietnam Railway went into operation officially in the model of the new organization include: Vietnam Railway Administration - Administration of State Railways, and General Railway Company Vietnam - State enterprises, including mass transport including four main units Passenger Transportation Company Ha Noi Railway, Passenger Transportation Company Saigon Railway Company Railway Transportation Operations Center and Rail Transportation.
 * In 2004, Congress passed the Railway Act. Thus, the first time in history, has set laws Railway adjustment of the industry sector.

Notes and references

 * Notes


 * References


 * Bibliography


 * Hulot, Frédéric. Les chemins de fer de la France d'outre-mer, tome 1 l'Indochine, le Yunnan. La Régordane. 1990.

Maps

 * Map of Indochina railways, 1922, from La Vie technique, industrielle, agricole et coloniale, 1922