User:Dumelow/British anti-invasion preparations of 1778–79

From 1778 to 1782, Britain implemented anti-invasion measures to guard against a feared Franco-Spanish invasion of the British Isles during the American Revolutionary War.

Background
Throughout the 16th century, as Houlding writes "the threat of invasion was the principal strategic weapon France possessed in her rivalry with Britain [...] So long as France was ale to maintain the threat of invasion, so long as that threat was credible, Britain had to keep a significant part of her land forces at home, a large part of her fleet in the Channel". France had previously threatened invasions in 1715-16, 1719, 1744-46 and 1756-57. Such an invasion would only have been practical in the summer or early autumn, when the wind was favourable and an army could have sufficient provisions. Whenever an invasion threat emerged, Britain would form military camps in south—primary southeast— England (aimed at defending London and Portsmouth. Such a set-up would ideally span from coast around Suffolk to the Thames estuary and to Dorset. Cavalry would be stationed in the outer areas and less mobile artillery and foot-soldiers in areas such as Kent, Portsmouth and Essex. They could then be deployed to meet any invading force. These camps were generally opened from May to July and closed by October or November. The British also heavily relied on the Channel Fleet for protection against an invasion.

Britain had been fighting the American Revolutionary War in North America since 1775. Following the British defeat at the October 1777 Battle of Saratoga France, keen to avenge their losses in the 1756-63 Seven Years' War, declared war on Britain. Britain was unable to find an ally on continental Europe and, with a small standing army, was unlike to embark on a campaign there. France's hopes, therefore, lay with an invasion of the British Isles. The most likely landing grounds were in the southern counties of Devon, Dorset, Hampshire, Sussex, Kent, and Essex and the adjacent sea, the English Channel. A successful invasion depended upon favourable winds, sufficient harvested food and fodder available in the meadows to sustain a force in the field and was therefore limited to the late summer or early autumn. Britain was in this period engaged in fighting in North America, the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, Africa and India limiting the forces available for home defence. In 1778 there was little public confidence that the British armed forces could repel an invading force. The Spanish declared war on Britain in 1779 which led to heightened fears that only subsided with the failure of that year's Franco-Spanish Armada.

French plans of 1779
The French foreign minister, Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes, considered that the economic ruination of Britain was more important than a military victory. The former French ambassador to Britain Adrien-Louis de Bonnières, comte de Guînes considered that a moderate French success would cause financial panic in the banking centre of London. A panic had followed the unsuccessful 1745 Jacobite invasion of England and Guînes considered that a single French naval victory in the Channel and the occupation of Portsmouth alone would ruin British credit and bring down the Bank of England. Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec had developed a detailed plan for the invasion of England in 1765, in the aftermath of French defeat in the Seven Years' War, and now updated it. De Broglie proposed a series of diversionary naval attacks to split the Royal Navy and achieve local superiority in the Channel where a fleet of 40 ships of the line and 20 frigates would attempt to win a victory that would allow troops to be ferried across from France. De Broglie's proposed landing areas were Rye, Winchelsea, Hastings and Pevensey in South-East England; he explicitly rejected attacks upon the naval bases at Portsmouth, Chatham and Plymouth, which had been proposed by rivals, in favour of concentrating his forces in the South-East.

The French leadership became convinced of the need to capture and hold part of Britain permanently as a "French Gibraltar". Bonnières' proposal to capture Portsmouth and a plan proposed by Charles François Dumouriez to capture the Isle of Wight and render the Spithead unnavigable were considered. Such a plan was incompatible with de Broglie's proposal to concentrate troops in South-East England ahead of a march on London. Despite the proposals Vergennes remained pessimistic about the chances of any actual invasion. After the Spanish joined the war they were insistent that an attempt be made and Vergennes proposed alternative, an attack on Ireland, was dismissed. In March 1779 Vergennes agreed to an invasion of England though fearing that the outright defeat of the British would alarm other European nations, selected the Portsmouth strategy. France's Spanish allies favoured the Portsmouth plan, as they anticipated swapping the port for Gibraltar in a subsequent peace treaty.

The 1799 Franco-Spanish alliance lent the possibility of a combined fleet of 50 ships of the line achieving local superiority against a British Home Fleet of around 45. The French kept a land force of 20,000 men in Normandy for the attack on Portsmouth, these would be ferried across the channel under an escort of frigates and corvettes. An additional force of 12,000 men was kept at Dunkirk to deceive the British as to the intended point of attack. As a further deception, in the event of an invasion, the French would launch diversionary raids on Bristol, Liverpool and Cork while the Spanish were to open peace negotiations. The invasion was dependent upon the French fleet slipping unnoticed out of Brest and the Spanish travelling from Cadiz to meet them at Corunna, without incident.

In June 1799 the French committed an additional 10,000 troops to the invasion force, to ensure that Portsmouth could be held indefinitely against attack. Around this time the Spanish made a series of decisions that threatened the success of an invasion. They insisted that they would only join the attack, and sail from Cadiz, after a formal declaration of war; this would allow the British an additional 17 days to prepare for an attack. They were also only able to supply their vessels with four months of food stores, giving the British the opportunity of fighting delaying actions to force their withdrawal. Around this time Plymouth was introduced as a secondary objective, in case Portsmouth was unassailable. Both objectives were known to British intelligence, though they had also heard of the de Broglie plan and considered Rye, Winchelsea, Hastings and Pevensey would also be attacked from ports in the Channel. On 29 June, Colonel William Roy, the British commissary-general, presented Lord Amherst with a report where he concluded that any invasion effort would be centred in south-east England; amid the confusion the Admiralty failed to blockade Brest.

Later threats
The outbreak of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War in 1780 led to increased invasion fears, particularly for the east coast. A Franco-Spanish fleet appeared in the Western Approaches in 1781 which raised fears once more, subsiding in 1782. The American Revolutionary War and the wars with France, Spain and the Netherlands were ended by the Treaty of Paris, negotiated 1782-3 and coming into force in 1783-4.

Royal Navy
The First Lord of the Admiralty, John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, had warned the prime minister Frederick North, Lord North of the threat posed by the French in December 1777. Sandwich requested that ships be reactivated from lying in ordinary to increase the strength of the Royal Navy. Sandwich refused to detach ships from the home fleets for foreign service and indeed recalled ships from overseas, depriving the North America and West Indies Station of strength at a key time in the war. The British government was uncertain what role the French Navy would play in a war. They had particularly large fleets stationed in Toulon and Brest which could be used to intervene in North America, attempt to capture British islands in the Caribbean, or invade the British Isles.

1778
The Royal Navy was formally mobilised for home defence on 14 March 1778 and the Channel Fleet, vital to guard against invasion, placed under the command of Admiral Augustus Keppel. War was not formally declared until June but the movement of French ships in early April, including a large squadron under Admiral d'Estaing, led to invasion fears in Britain. Later that month the poor condition of British coastal defences was demonstrated by the American captain John Paul Jones who landed at Whitehaven, Cumbria, attempted to capture the Earl of Selkirk at St Mary's Isle, Scotland and captured HMS Drake in Belfast Lough. The Channel Fleet found itself undermanned and a general impressment was ordered on 23 May; merchant ships were also confined to port to preserve manpower.

The Channel Fleet lost 13 ships-of-the-line, detached to the West Indies to shadow d'Estaing's squadron, and Keppel was left with just 21 ships-of-the-line. He soon after learned from captured documents that the French maintained berths for 27 ships-of-the-line at Brest and, fearing defeat, refused to sail unless he received reinforcements,  Keppel was granted a further eight vessels and, putting to sea, brought a 32-ship French fleet to battle at Ushant on 27 July. The engagement was inconclusive and both fleets withdrew to port for repair.; the French, under Spanish pressure to not risk a defeat, were ordered not to sail again that season. Many in Britain considered Ushant a lost chance to inflict a decisive defeat that would rule out the threat of invasion for some years, as the Battle of Quiberon Bay had in 1759.

1779
A dispute between Keppel and his sub-ordinate Hugh Palliser over the conduct of the Battle of Ushant caused a divide among Royal Navy officers. Keppel was succeeded as commander of the Channel Fleet by Charles Hardy, one of the few senior officers to remain neutral on the matter, though he had little recent sea experience. The fleet was understrength, standing at just 13 ships-of-the-line, and parliament debated a new inpressment and the appropriation of merchant vessels. A squadron of lighter ships was used as a reconnaissance force to check the French ports for gathering troops. A 60-ship Franco-Spanish armada was sighted on 12 June 1799 and Hardy, who by this point had 28 ships, put to sea.

Strong winds caused difficulties to both sides but on 15 August the armada reached the English Channel, bypassing Hardy's force. Hardy made chase but the armada, badly affected by sickness, withdrew to Brest where it stayed for the remainder of the invasion season. Once more the Royal Navy was criticised for failing to secure a decisive victory, though modern assessments consider that Hardy had little chance in a straight fight, given his inferiority in strength. Jones continued to operate close to the British coast and, on 23 Sepember, captured HMS Serapis off the Yorkshire coast.

1780-1782
The failure of the armada led the French to focus their naval efforts in the West Indies and the Spanish upon the Mediterranean, where they were besieging the British port of Gibraltar. During the 1780 season there was little action in the channel and the British fleet, under Admiral Sir Francis Geary, was required to carry out little more than routine cruises. At the start of the 1781 season the Channel Fleet, under George Darby, sailed to Gibraltar to reinforce the British garrison. It returned to British waters and in July there were fears that a large Franco-Spanish fleet in the Western Approaches threatened an invasion of Ireland. The Channel Fleet was stationed at Torbay as a precaution but, again, the Franco-Spanish force was badly affected by disease and returned to Brest.

The Surrender of British forces at Yorktown effectively ended the land conflict against the American colonies and brought a Whig government to power. Admiral Richard Howe was placed in command of the Channel Fleet and faced not only the threat of the Franco-Spanish fleet but also the Dutch at Texel in the East and the need to again resupply Gibraltar. The French fleet was scattered by strong winds, ending the threat for the short-term and allowing Howe to refit his fleet at Portsmouth. The Royal George was lost to an accident on 29 August but within two weeks Howe set out for Gibraltar. The Franco-Spanish fleet failed to prevent Howe from relieving the siege for the third and final time. The Channel Fleet returned to British waters by the end of the invasion season, in November.

Regular army
Upon the outbreak of the war with France the government received a number of offers from members of the nobility to raise regiments, at their own expense, in return for control over the issue of officers commissions (which were then a purchasable commodity). The government agreed raise twelve regiments in this fashion in the first year of the war, including six from Scotland. Most of these regiments were posted overseas but the 73rd (Highland) Regiment was stationed in Plymouth to defend the naval base and the 78th (Highland) and 83rd regiments were posted to defend the Channel Islands, where they fought against attempted French invasions in May 1779 and in January 1781. All three of these regiments were Scottish.

The British Army was expanded in size by 13,000 men in 1778. Though the new units helped, much of the expansion was from increasing the establishment of existing regiments. The 18th Regiment of Foot, which was posted to England on home defence duties, was authorised an increase to 70-man companies and to raise two additional companies for recruiting purposes and in doing so became one of the largest regiments in the army. Seven other British army regiments were authorised an increase to 70-man companies and eight further regiments to 56-man companies. There was no conscription into the British Army of this period, to encourage volunteers a bounty was paid to new recruits. In some areas, such as Staffordshire, the government bounty was augmented by donations from members of the public.

At the beginning of 1779, the British army in the Isles was estimated to be 30,000 strong, including 3,000 invalids. There were a further 37,000 men serving in 67 militia battalions across England and Wales, and in Scotland over 3,000 in three regiments. There were additionally proposals for an additional 13,000 recruits and estimates of 10,000 regulars in Ireland. Patterson writes that these figures were gross overestimations, and the figures in June and August were closer to 20,000 regulars with 2,500 invalids., and 400-500 "drunken and undisciplined" regulars in the Channel Islands. While there were 30,000 militiamen, they lacked training and left the army as soon as their three year terms of service expired. Only Ireland actually met it's estimated strength. He considers Lord North's declaration that the United Kingdom had "71,000 land forces, of whom 63,000 were effective men" on 21 June "numerically pretty correct, but very misleading as to the quality of most of the troops.

After the Spanish declaration of war in June 1779 some 32 offers to raise regiments were received by the British government. This included proposals to raise regiments from men facing imprisonment for bankruptcy and from smugglers who face a loss of trade because of the war. Hugh Percy, 1st Duke of Northumberland offered to raise a corps of riflemen to fight in an irregular fashion to harass any invader. The government was, however, reluctant to accept many of these offers as they judged them to be attempts to secure status for their patrons, provide promotions to existing British Army officers or to secure a profit from the sale of commissions. There were also concerns that the new units would compete with existing regiments in the recruitment of men. It was preferable that new recruits be placed with existing units where they could be trained alongside experienced soldiers than in newly formed units with only a small cadre of trainers.

Because proposals for expanding the militia largely failed, Britain was later forced to accept several of the offers to raise regiments, allowing the creation of fourteen regiments of foot, two light dragoosn, and three fencibles. They were to have a combined strength of 13,000, and had actually reached 9,000 by November. One of the Dragoon regiments, raised by John Baker Holroyd, the 22nd Dragoons, consisted of smugglers in Sussex who were "lately out of business" but "seasoned, hardy, daring, capable of great fatigue, vigilant, accustomed to bad roads and night work [and] faithful at least as far as holding together." Three were sent as reinforcements to Plymouth in October, but the majority were not ready for combat in 1779. Throughout the year, most offers were still declined.

Reform
The British Army had operating procedures laid out in the 1764 Relations. By the late 1770s, the regulations were out of date and needed to be replaced. Revising the army's procedures took much effort as their units were spread across the world. With a looming threat of well-trained French regiments invading, reform was instituted among soldiers in England. As troops were concentrated in camps, revising drill procedures was made particularly easy. In June 1778 Lord Amherst sent copies of nine new manoeuvres to the camps that were practiced across the country during the summer of 1778. In the winter, the manouvres were revised and published in spring 1779 as part of the updated 1778 Regulations.

Militia
The militia was the principal reserve military force available to the British government. The units were organised on a county basis, with the Lord Lieutenants holding responsibility for the units. Men could volunteer for service but deficiencies in meeting quotas set by the government for each unit were made up by a ballot of the fighting-aged men of the county, a form of conscription. The militia was judged to be of uncertain use, the men were often drawn from the poorest classes, those unable to purchase an exemption from the ballot, and discipline and training were of a lower standard than that of the regulars. The British government considered the milita best deployed within their own counties where they might make use of their local knowledge of roads that an invader might take. However many of those mobilised from inland counties were moved to the south and east coasts during the invasion months.

The militia ballot was an unpopular measure, there were riots in Spring 1778 when the militia was called into service and ballots held to make up deficiencies in numbers. Bills in late 1778 and early 1779 were unsuccesful at convincing people to join the militia. About 1,100 men were impressed into service. In June 1779 a bill was debated in parliament to double the size of the militia, an increase of some 31,500 men, to bolster the force. This would have been achieved by increasing the size of militia companies from 60 men to 100. It was hoped that volunteers would fill a number of the positions but the conscription of 30,000 men would be required. The bill passed but had been amended to only provide for the formation of volunteer corps, partly because of arguments that men were needed more urgently by the regular army and the navy.

Irregular troops
Volunteer units, not under government command, formed spontaneously for the defence of London in 1779. When invasion threatened with the appearance of the Armada of 1779 a force of 2,000 Cornish tin miners was assembled at Falmouth on 15 August. There were no arms available to issue them and they were largely sent home when the Franco-Spanish fleet had passed eastwards. However 630 of the miners were sent to Plymouth, where there were arms available for 500 of them, and put to work on the fortifications there. Around 200 workers were drafted from the dockyards to man the guns of the coastal batteries. A public subscription in the city raised £1,000 to provide arms for the volunteers and by 25 August 2,520 weapons had been distributed by Lieutenant-General Sir David Lindsay of Evelick; plans were afoot to arm a further 3,000 men before the Armada withdrew in early September. Several similar volunteer organisations were formed across Britain during 1779. An estimated 150 companies, each with at least 50 men, were raised before the year ended.

DISCUSS Irish Volunteers (18th century)

Encampments
Camps listed by Houlding p. 330-1: Large camps: Coxheath (1778-82), Salisbury (1778-9), Middling camps: Tiptree Heath (1780), West Stowe (1778), Cavenham Heath by Newmarket (1779), Warley Common (1778-9, 1781), Chatham (1781-2), Dartford Heath (1780), Hyde Park (1780), Winchester (1778), Smallest: Hopton Warren (1782), Mutford Bridge (1782), Bromeswell (1782), Danbury (1780, 1781), Lenham Heath (1781, 1782), Westfield near Hastings (1779, 1782), Playden Heights (1780, 1781), Waterdown by Tunbridge Wells (1780), Finchley Common (1780), Ranmore Common (1780), Portsmouth (1780,1781), Gosport (1780), Brixham (1780), Plymouth, Roborough, Kingsand (1778-82)

Camps were intended to provide reassurance. From 1778 and 1779, camps lasted for five months, and in 1780-82 they were open for 15-18 weeks (around four months). Cavalry camps were generally broken up a month before others.

Military camps were established close to the Royal Navy ports of Portsmouth, Plymouth and Chatham in spring 1778. Others were established on the routes inland at Winchester, Salisbury and West Stowe (Suffolk) and two major encampments at Coxheath and Warley COmmon to protect the appraoches to London. Further camps were established in 1779 at Cavenham Heath and Westfield.

Further camps were established in 1780 in London, as a result of the Gordon Riots; on the south coast at Playden Heights (Rye), Gosport and Brixham and on the London approaches at Waterdown (Kent), Tiptree Heath (Essex) and Danbury (Essex). In 1781 a camp was established at Lenham Heath (Kent) and in 1782 at Yarmouth and Beccles (Suffolk) reflecting the focus shifting to the east coast with the Dutch entry into the war. Coxheath and Warley are the two most important camps in this period. Camps were also established in Ireland.

Some camps drew many visitors as soon as a few weeks after establishment. On a Sunday in July 1778, as many as 20,000 people were reported to have visited Warley Camp. Spectators came to visit Warley and Coxheath from the surrounding countryside and London. Particularly large crowds were noted when a prominent figure such as the King or Queen visited the camps. Famous socialites of London visited the camps, including the Duchess of Devonshire. After the first year, the number of visitors declined. Robert W. Jones writes that "while their ostensible purpose was to guard coastal towns or strategic river navigations, the encampments soon became places of fashionable resort and sybaritic pleasure."

Camps at Maker Heights and Cawsand near Plymouth housed the 73rd Regiment and the Royals and were stood to, reinforced by the Hampshire militia, when notified on 16 August 1779 of the approach of the armada.

Dartford Heath camp formed Spring 1780. Housed the 52nd, 59th and 65th regiments plus elements of the North Hants, Northampton, Montgomery, East Yorks, Hertfordshire, Rutland and Caernarvonshire militia. Commanded by Lt-General Richard Pierson and Major-General Charles Rainsford. Three regiments of the camp, under Rainsford, were dispatched to London to help weull the Gordon riots. The camp, as a unit of 8,000 practised crossing the Thames at Gravesend by causeways and barges. An act they may have had to carry out in case of invasion. Camp broke up in September 1780.

The camps were the largest established in Britain since the French invasion threat of 1758. The soldiers at the camps carried out brigade-level drill, maneovres and mock battles. Also target shooting, a practice not generally carried out in peacetime training. 10 battalions (4,200 men) at Tiptree heath camp in 1780. Small camps such as Salisbury and Chatham held around around 1,400 men in 1778.

The camps were intended to train the battalions in working together in large formations and to instruct the men in the 1778 manual of arms.

Lord North intended the camps also as a measure to reassure the British public.

The camps were also noted for having large numbers of prostitutes. They also had concerns over health; there were numerous outbreaks of diseases at the camps, such as bilious fever, which infected 600 soldiers at Coxheath in 1779, killing 60. Conway notes that the establishment of camps correlates with a sharp increase in regional burials. There was also a regional uptick in thefts where camps were established.

The camps attracted many merchants. It was reported that 700 retailers traveled to service Coxheath, and Conway argues they had a positive effect on local businesses by purchasing large amounts of supplies and food, encouraging visitors that stayed overnight, and otherwise employing townspeople. Coxheath and Warley attracted merchants and businessmen due to their proximity to London, servicing the camp; some established carriage routes out to the camps.

Known as 'castramania'

By 1780 most forces left at the camps were considered "weak and over-extended" by Houlding.

Coxheath
In Coxheath, along modern day A229, spanning to Hawkhurst. Set up in a line, approximately 2-3.5 miles long and 1/4 miles wide. About forty miles from London.

The only permanent building was the headquarters, where the General officer commanding and staff lived. Mess halls and huts for sutlers were also constructed, but all other housing for soldiers consisted of tents. It was designed to hold approximately eighteen infantry regiments of ten companies. It also had an artillery park and a cavalry regiment (for 1778 only). The camp was commanded by a lieutenant-general assigned by the War Office, which was led by Lord Amherst who had a 'close interest' in the camp. He was assisted by another lieutenant-general or a major-general. Camp was divided into a right and left wing, each commanded by major-generals.

Patterson says the force at Coxheath was intended to be teh main force that would oppose any invasion. Soldiers at the camp were ready for deployment at any moment; they could supposedly be "ready to march at an hours notice."

The camp was carefully laid out in a orderly fashion. Soldiers were given a bread ration of 6 lb every four days and 3 lb of wood every day; officers received double rations of fuel, major-generals up to 30, and lieutenant-generals up to 50. Other food could be purchased from sutlers. Tents held five men.

Royals visited three weeks after visiting Warley and reviewed the troops on 3 November.

The battalions at Coxheath were issued with two battalion guns each, small artillery pieces to be used to support the unit.

Encampment was broken up in early November 1778. Opened on 28 May 1778. Closed on 11 November 1778.

Camp reformed in 1779, some of the regular units may have overwintered there.

Camp opened for summer training 9 June 1779

In August 1779, most of the Worcestershire militia left the camp as their three-year terms of service were met, despite th threat of invasion being "most imminent".

Warley
Opened on 28 May 1778. Housed 11,000 men in 1778. Less then twenty miles from London.

Sited near to Brentwood, Essex. Camp formed into separate lines, along a curve. Many distinguished officers were present, including three dukes. A contemporary report in the Westminster Magazine stated: "never in any camp, perhaps, were assembled so many officers of rank and distinction". Royal visit in October 1778 for two days by king and queen. On 19 and 20 October 1778, stayed at Thorndon Hall. Began with King George III reviewing the troops, followed by a mock attack led by a Lieutenant-general Pearson.

Closed on 11 November 1778 Last regualr regiment stationed there was the 18th. They left the camp on 27 November 1779.

Other measures
A defensive booms were prepared to block the harbours at Plymouth and Portsmouth.

There were plans to drive cattle and other livestock inland in case of invasion to prevent them providing sustenance to the French and Spanish armies.

From June 1779 vessels were stationed at Gunfleet and elsewhere int he Thames estuary to sink the navigation buoys and put out the Nore lights to prevent thie ruse by an invading armada.

Discussion in parliament as to whether lords-lieutenants should start numbering cattle and preparing a rendezvous place for them to be driven to. Also if surveys of available hay and corn should be made and horses foudn to carry these stores away if necessary.

Guernsey loophole towers built 1778-1779 also Jersey round towers

Cultural impact
Historian Stephen Conway writes that "in the years 1778-9, when fears of invasion were at their height, a veritable camp mania gripped the country. For the soldiers and militiamen who resided in the camps, for the thousands of civilian visitors, and even for the readers of contemporary periodicals and newspapers who devoured the regular columns of `Camp Intelligence', the camps seem to have played an important role in increasing a sense of national consciousness."

The camps of 1778 and 1779, at five months duration, were longer than the later camps and reflect the heightened fear of invasion during these years. The camps captured the public imagination, were popular for visits (guided tours were offered from nearby cities) and featured in contemporary plays. Entertainment based on the camps included musical comedy written by Richard Brinsley Sheridan and music by Thomas Linley The Camp was performed 57 times at Drury Lane in the season beginning on 15 October 1778. Various other media, including a 1779 poem by George Huddesford, Warley, and a 1779 book The Camp. Paintings of King George III's visit to Warley were done by Philip James de Loutherbourg.