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References

Alam, M. T., Weppelmann, T. A., Weber, C. D., Johnson, J. A., Rashid, M. H., & Birch, C. S. (n.d.). Monitoring Water Sources for Environmental Reservoirs of Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1, Haiti. Emerging Infectious Diseases. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2003.131293

The authors, researchers from the University of Florida and the University of Florida, study whether or not Cholera has established environmental reservoirs in Haiti by monitoring environmental sites throughout the country. The article concludes that V. cholerae O1 is present in the aquatic environment in Haiti. This source is relevant because it discusses a relatively new environmental issue in Haiti, which could have major impacts on the health of the population as a whole and complicate the eradication of the disease from Haiti. The authors all specialize in health, emerging pathogens, or medicine and are reliable, unbiased sources.

Dolisca, F., McDaniel, J., Teeter, L., & Jolly, C. (n.d.). Land tenure, population pressure, and deforestation in Haiti: The case of Forêt des Pins Reserve. Journal of Forest Economics. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfe.2007.02.006

The authors, researchers from Auburn University, study the causes of deforestation in Haiti and find that household size, education of head of the household, land tenure regime, and farm labor are important factors affecting land clearing. The study relied on surveys of households in the Forêt de Pins Reserve, with annual average area of forest cleared as the dependent variable. This study is a useful resource because it focuses on factors that many other studies do not consider, such as land tenure, to determine leading causes of deforestation in Haiti. It also discusses the effects of deforestation on the country as a whole.

Ferris, D., & Gronewold, N. (n.d.). How the Caribbean's charred forests end up firing America's barbecues [Newsgroup post]. Retrieved from Environment and Energy Publishing website: http://www.eenews.net/energywire/stories/1060039364/search?keyword=haiti

The article, published on Energywire, discusses how a major cause of deforestation in Haiti is that people clear trees and then burn them in order to create charcoal, which is in turn sold as the primary energy source for residents of Haiti. This article is useful to learn about both deforestation and energy use in Haiti. It is published by a reliable newsgroup, Environment and Energy Publishing, which has no special interest in that subject and therefore can be assumed to be objective.

Josheph, M., Wang, F., & Wang, L. (n.d.). GIS-based assessment of urban environmental quality in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Habitat International. Retrieved from ScienceDirect database.

The authors, researchers from the Department of Geography and Anthropology at Louisiana State University, assess urban environmental quality in Port-au-Prince, Haiti in a Geographic Information System environment using the most recent census from the Haitian Institute of Statistics and Informatics, imaging technologies, and academic literature. Factors considered include proximity to water body pollution and frequency of natural disasters. The authors concluded that a majority of Port-au-Prince residents live in areas of low environmental quality and are therefore in a situation of environmental injustice. This is a helpful source for discussing environmental injustice in Haiti, and looking at specific factors that contribute to that injustice through a scientific lens. This source is able to directly assess the quality of life of Haitians by using their census as a major source for demographic data.

Kolbe, A., Puccio, M., & Muggah, R. (2012, December). After the storm: Haiti's coming food crisis. Retrieved from Eldis database.

The report was published as a strategic note by the Igarapé Institute, which is a think and do tank focusing on emerging development and security issues. The organization used surveying methods to study the relationship between natural disasters and food security in Haiti. This source is relevant in learning about how the increase in natural disasters in Haiti (presumably because of climate change) will affect food security and Haiti's agriculture based economy. The Igarapé Institute uses reliable, first hand data to illustrate these effects.

Rhiney, K. (n.d.). Geographies of Caribbean Vulnerability in a Changing Climate: Issues and Trends. Geography Compass. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12199

The author, a researcher from the University of the West Indies, examines the impacts of climate change on specific countries throughout the Caribbean and how the effects of climate change will not be felt uniformly throughout the region. Haiti is identified as a country that has particularly high vulnerability to natural disasters in environmental and economic terms. Other issues, such as sea level rise and ocean acidification, as well as solutions are discussed. This source is useful to compare the effects of climate change on Haiti to other Caribbean countries. The author is objective and does not exhibit special interests in the field.

Sheller, M., & Leon, Y. (n.d.). Uneven socio-ecologies of Hispaniola: Asymmetric capabilities for climate adaptation in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. Geoforum. Retrieved from ScienceDirect database.

The authors, researchers from Drexel University and the Technological Institute of Santo Domingo, study how neighboring countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic, respond to large-scale environmental change by looking at the surface area change of the two largest lakes in both countries. Through interview processes in both countries and data analysis of climate change, the authors concluded that the nations' histories, institutions, and international linkages shape their capabilities for climate adaptation and justice. This source will highlight how Haiti differs from other countries like it in solving environmental issues, because of its different political ecology context. It successfully combines interviews and scientific data to create a comprehensive analysis of the subject. Tippenhauer, H. (n.d.). Freedom is not enough: Haiti’s sustainability in peril. Local Environment. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13549831003594198

The author, one of the coordinators for the Latin American and Caribbean Network for Democracy, studies Haiti's colonial history and current political conflict as it affects the country's past, present, and future ability to be sustainable. In Haiti basic health, education, and infrastructure needs are not being met, and the country adopt a new political paradigm to become sustainable. The author discusses how Haiti needs to needs to create a more secure environment for itself in order to pursue economic freedom. This article will be helpful to me because, in addition to discussing specific environmental issues in Haiti, it connects these issues to other aspects of Haitian society. The article is written by a social entrepreneur with many years of experience in the private, public, and non-for-profit sector in Haiti. He could be inherently biased through his experiences in the country, so the article should be read through an objective lens with careful attention to possible bias.

Draft 1:

Environmental issues in Haiti include a severe deforestation problem, overpopulation, a lack of sanitation and sewerage treatment, and food insecurity. A major reason for the environmental issues in Haiti is that there is not sufficient protection or management of the country’s natural resources. Other severe environmental issues, such as decreases in precipitation and more severe natural disasters, will likely arise in Haiti as a result of climate change. Haiti needs to adopt new policies to address both the issues that already exist and to prepare for the effects of climate change.

Sections:

1.    Deforestation

a.    Charcoal as energy

2.    Overpopulation

3.    Lack of Sanitation

4.    Food Insecurity

5.    Natural Disasters

6.    Effects of Climate Change

Deforestation

“In 1923 forests covered nearly 60 percent of Haiti. In 2006, less than 2% of the land was forested.”[1]  “Deforestation has led to soil erosion, which has decreased agricultural yields and resulted in deadly landslides.” The principle reasons for deforestation in Haiti are that wood is burned as charcoal for energy, and because the land is needed for agricultural production, which is the base of the Haitian economy.

Charcoal, created by burning wood, is the primary source of energy for Haitian residents. The UN reported that 92% of Haitian households rely on charcoal for cooking, and approximately 10,000 bags of charcoal are burned daily in Haiti. “Because of Haiti running out of plant material to burn, Haitians have created an illegal market for coal on the Dominican side. Conservative estimates calculate the illegal movement of 115 tons of charcoal per week from the Dominican Republic to Haiti in 2014. Dominican officials estimate that at least 10 trucks per week are crossing the border loaded with charcoal.”[3]

“Most of Haiti's governments have paid only lip service to the imperative of reforestation.[4]The main impetus to act came from abroad.[4] A 15-year Environment Action Plan, authorized in 1999, proposed to stop deforestation by developing alternative fuel sources. Political instability and lack of funding have limited the impact of this reform effort.” Haiti’s reliance on agriculture to support its economy is another impediment to reforestation, because reallocating land for forest means a reduction in land available for cultivation of crops. Studies have also shown that insecure property rights discourage forest management; there is a reduced possibility that tenants can reap the benefits of conservation, because of the possibility of losing the property in the future. The Haitian government could encourage citizens to preserve forested land through the strengthening of property rights.

Overpopulation

“The increasing Haitian population also contributes to the degradation of the environment. As of 2012, the Haiti's population count was at 10.6 million.” Low-income individuals are largely concentrated in urban areas, especially Port-Au-Prince, and are subject to poor environmental quality, human health, and quality of life. Port-Au-Prince’s urban environmental quality is further reduced by its poor infrastructure, lack of government management, and its subjectivity to natural disasters, as a result of being located on the coast. Studies show that more than 60% of Haitians live in low environmental quality urban areas near the coast, such as Port-Au-Prince. The areas with the lowest environmental quality have the highest population density, and are subject to pollution and an array of natural hazards. These individuals face a situation of environmental injustice.

Lack of Sanitation

The lack of sanitation and sewerage treatment in Haiti has led to inadequate supplies of safe drinking water. City sewerage systems are inadequate, and many citizens have to use septic tanks. Local drainage systems primarily consist of open channels dug along the side of the road. The densely populated capital of Port-au-Prince is especially at risk for water-bourne diseases, with many of its citizens residing on flood plains in poorly constructed housing and a generally under-developed waste management system. Only 46% of the urban population has access to safe water, and in 2012 only 55% of people in urban areas had “improved sanitation”. “Improved sanitation” consists of using a latrine. Natural disasters make water sanitation even worse, as latrines and channels on the side of the road often overflow. A 2012 study after hurricane season found that less than 10% of households were drinking treated water a week after a storm.

A Cholera epidemic was reported in Haiti in October, 2010, after the infection was brought to the country by peacekeeping troops providing aid after a devastating earthquake struck the region. Infections have continued to occur since the initial epidemic, which raises questions as to whether there is an established environmental reservoir of Cholera in Haiti. Studies show that conditions are appropriate for Cholera to establish environmental reservoirs in the water in Haiti. The establishment of environmental reservoirs would make it nearly impossible to eradicate the disease from Haiti, and increase the chance of transmission of the disease to the Dominican Republic and other parts of the Caribbean. Both improving sanitation and monitoring potential environmental reservoirs is necessary to reduce the spread of Cholera throughout Haiti.

Food Insecurity

Roughly 40% of the total land in Haiti is farmed, with agriculture being the basis of the country’s economy. Food security is poor in the immediate aftermath of natural disasters, and more erratic and unpredictable rainfall will place strain on the agriculture industry. Following the hurricanes of 2012, about 70% of Haitian residents reported suffering from moderate or severe hunger, and more than two thirds of households lost crops from their fields. More than two thirds of farmers reported having crops destroyed, losing materials to plant new crops, and/or losing farming equipment/tools. It is essential that Haiti develop a warning system to aid farmers in preparing for these natural disasters to reduce the impacts of storms on the agriculture system. The farming sector will also have to build resilience against drought and water scarcity as rainfall patterns change. Drought particularly affects the Northwest, Artibonite, and Centre departments of Haiti. Resulting from erratic rainfall patterns and poor water management infrastructure, droughts destroy crops, reduce agricultural production, and decrease food security. Improved infrastructure could play a role in increasing food security, as Haiti largely relies on small rural farms and struggles to transport enough food from the countryside to village markets and urban centers. Specific improvements needed to aid the Haitian food system are improved public infrastructure and more paved roads.

Natural Disasters

As a small Caribbean island, Haiti is often the victim of intense natural disasters such as hurricanes, tropical storms, and earthquakes, which have large impacts on both Haiti’s environment and its citizens. The intensity of Atlantic hurricanes in Haiti has increased substantially since 1980. These storms frequently result in loss of human life, loss of livestock, destruction of agriculture, soil erosion, a spike in water-borne diseases, and decreased food security. Tropical storms often also lead to flooding, which is one of the leading causes of vulnerability in Haiti. Flooding often occurs in Haiti’s most populous cities, which are located in valleys along the coast. Large amounts of rain, the barren hills that are left from deforestation, and poor drainage infrastructure leave Haiti especially susceptible to flooding after tropical storms. Landslides also often result from the rain accompanying a tropical storm, since much of the soil has eroded as a result of deforestation. Poor infrastructure makes it difficult for people to cope with natural disasters on a basic level. Inability to evacuate, for example, leads to a much larger loss of life than a country with good public infrastructure and paved roads would experience in the same situation. Haiti, however, lacks both climate-resilient infrastructure and the funds to construct it.

Effects of Climate Change

Haiti’s position as a Southern island nation makes it particularly susceptible to the effects of climate change. Several effects of climate change that Haiti is already experiencing include decreased average rainfall, increased average temperatures, sea-level rise, increased intensity of tropical storms, depleted coral reefs, and desertification. Since 1960 the mean annual rainfall has decreased by 5mm per month per decade, and mean temperatures have increased by .45 degreed Celcius. The combination of increased temperatures and decreased rainfall will likely lead to the intensification of drought conditions, especially in the center of the country. According to the IPCC climate change predictions for 2050, more than 50% of Haiti will be in danger of desertification. The frequency of hot days and nights has increased, while the frequency of cold days and nights have steadily decreased. Sea-level rise is projected to rise between .13 and .56m by 2090. The US Climate Change Science program estimates that with each 1 degree Celcius increase in temperature, hurricane rainfall will increase by 6-17% and hurricane wind speeds will increase by 1-8%.