User:EcoBear13/North Atlantic right whale/Bibliography

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CURRENT SECTION

''Climate change poses a threat to the North Atlantic right whale as global temperatures increase and ocean processes change. Long migratory periods, gestations, and time gaps between calves results in slow-growing right whale populations. A brief change in food availability (in particular Calanus finmarchicus) can affect right whale populations for years after. Females must have access to plenty of food to successfully make it through pregnancy and produce enough milk to rear a calf. To illustrate the species’ sensitivity to food availability, in 1998 zooplankton populations dropped dramatically following a climate shift. Even though zooplankton abundance began to rise again in 1999, right whales have such a long reproduction and migratory cycle that the population was greatly affected by the minimal food availability from the year before. In 1999, only one right whale calf was born, compared to the 21 that were born in 1996, before the climate shift. In 2001, after the zooplankton populations greatly recovered, 30 calves were born.''

''Zooplankton abundance has been found to be associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the most influential climate force in the Northern Hemisphere. Periodically, pressure anomalies in the system shift from positive to negative as determined by the NAO Index, affecting temperatures and wind patterns. Abundant zooplankton populations have been linked to a positive NAO Index. As global temperatures increase, the NAO is predicted to shift more often and to greater intensities (so-called marine heatwaves).These shifts will likely greatly affect the abundance of zooplankton, posing a great risk for right whale populations that cannot rapidly adapt to a new food source.''

''Climate change causes warming of the ocean, and in turn changes ocean circulation patterns. This changes the foraging patterns and habitat of the North Atlantic right whale, "reducing the population’s calving rate and exposing it to greater mortality risks from ship strikes and fishing gear entanglement".''

EDITED

Anthropogenic climate change poses a growing threat to the North Atlantic right whale. Documented effects in the scientific literature include impacts on reproduction, range, prey access, interactions with human activities, and individual health condition.

In particular, climate-driven changes to ocean circulation and water temperatures have affected the species' foraging and habitat use patterns, with numerous harmful consequences. One key impact is on the abundance of the important prey species Calanus finmarchicus. Warming waters lead to decreased abundance of C. finmarchicus, meaning that climate change is reducing the availability of a prominent food source for right whales. This reduction in prey availability affects the health of the population in numerous ways. The most direct impacts are on the survival and reproductive success of individual whales, as lower C. finmarchicus densities have been associated with malnutrition-related health issues and difficulties successfully giving birth to and rearing calves.

For example, in 1998 zooplankton populations dropped dramatically following a climate shift. Even though zooplankton abundance began to rise again in 1999, right whales have such a long reproduction and migratory cycle that the population was greatly affected by the minimal food availability from the year before. In 1999, only one right whale calf was born, compared to the 21 that were born in 1996 before the climate shift. In 2001, after the zooplankton populations greatly recovered, 30 calves were born

Zooplankton abundance has been found to be associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), the most influential climate force in the Northern Hemisphere. Periodically, pressure anomalies in the system shift from positive to negative as determined by the NAO Index, affecting temperatures and wind patterns. Abundant zooplankton populations have been linked to a positive NAO Index. As global temperatures increase, the NAO is predicted to shift more often and to greater intensities (so-called marine heatwaves).These shifts will likely greatly affect the abundance of zooplankton, posing a great risk for right whale populations that cannot rapidly adapt to a new food source.

Decreased abundance of C. finmarchicus as well as shifting seasonal temperature and ocean circulation patterns have also driven right whales to feed in different places and at different time of years compared to historical data. This has meant whales are present in habitats and times of year that are not accounted for by existing regulations intended to protect them from threats such as vessel strikes and gear entanglements. This has led to an increase in whale deaths alongside the decrease in births, which together account for recent population decline. Even without accounting for deaths which are unreported and undocumented, the number of whale deaths between 2017 and 2020 exceeded the number of births, a trend that could lead to extinction if unaddressed.

UME

Current Section

''As defined by the Marine Mammal Protection Act an Unusual Mortality Event (UME) demands immediate response and is characterized by a stranding that is unexpected or involves a significant die-off of any marine mammal population. In 2017, a UME began in the North Atlantic right whale population. 2017 saw the population of under 400 suffer 17 deaths as a result of anthropogenic threats (12 in Canada, 5 in the U.S). In 2018 there were 3 deaths attributed to anthropogenic threats, and in 2019 another 10 were lost to such causes. 9 of the deaths were attributed to vessel strikes and 8 to entanglement with the rest lacking a thorough examination to determine the cause of death. The same time period (2017-2019) saw an additional 8 severely injured, as in they were observed in a condition that would likely kill them within weeks to months''

Edited

The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) defines an Unusal Mortality Event (UME) as "a stranding event that is unexpected, involves a significant die-off of any marine mammal population, and demands immediate response." A UME for the North Atlantic right whale population has been active since 2017, a year where the population of under 400 individuals experienced 35 mortalities and morbidities. The most common direct causes of the deaths and injuries associated with the recent UME have been the same as ever (vessel strikes and entanglements), but there is an underlying connection to climate change. The temperature, circulation, and prey abundance changes associated with climate change have driven right whales to occupy new habitats (or existing habitats at new times of year), exposing them to anthropogenic threats outside of the scope of protective regulations. In particular, Canada's Gulf of St. Lawrence was the site of 17 right whale deaths and injuries during the summer of 2017 ; research has since shown that whales had recently begun using the region consistently for the first time.