User:ElenieAnteneh/Racism in the United States

Ethnic-racial socialization
Ethnic-racial socialization refers to the transfer of knowledge about various aspects of race and/ or ethnicity through generations. Parents of color use ethnic-racial socialization to transfer cultural knowledge to their children in order to protect their children from potential biases they may face as a result of their ethnicity and/or race. However, how parents choose to socialize with their children regarding issues of ethnicity and race affects children differently. For example, higher self-esteem is shown in children of color when positive aspects of their race/ethnicity are the focus of their socialization. On the other hand, if the focus of socialization mainly revolves around mistrust around interracial or inter-ethnic relations, children’s self-concept might suffer. Promotion of mistrust is especially most harmful when it is presented without positive coping skills.

Wang et al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis review of 334 articles about how ethnic-racial socialization affects psycho-social adjustment in children of color and at what stage of development the effects of ethnic-racial socialization would be most prominent. Research findings show a positive relationship between parental ethnic-racial socialization and psycho-social well-being measures, including self-perception, confidence, and interpersonal relationships.

The effects of age varied based on the psycho-social well-being measure. Results showed positive self-perception as a result of ethnic-racial socialization was most effective in childhood and early adolescence. On the other hand, positive relationships between interpersonal relationships and ethnic-racial socialization were more prominent in middle to late adolescence. The effects of ethnic-racial socialization also varied based on the race/ethnicity in question. Self-perception and ethnic-racial socialization are related more positively among African Americans, suggesting that it is used to buffer against the deep-rooted stigma and biases African Americans in the United States face. Contrary to African Americans, ethnic-racial socialization was related to low self-perception among Asian Americans.

In order to better understand the effects of ethnic-racial socialization and psychological development, research should take into account known moderating factors similar to stereotype threat. It is important to note that the research findings were correlational and as such does not suggest causality.