User:EllaMcCann/sandbox

=== Evolutionary Explanations of Female Cosmetic Surgery[edit source | edit][edit source | edit] === Plastic surgery procedures are more common among women than men; 92% of cosmetic surgery procedures in the USA in 2014 were conducted on female patients. The reason for this discrepancy may be explained by current evolutionary theoretical and empirical findings which suggest that differences in male mate preference play a role in motivating females to make alterations to their perceived attractiveness.

There is an underlying assumption in current evolutionary theory that humans, regardless of social or geographic position, find a definable set of traits attractive in possible reproductive mates. The theory follows that humans have evolved to become interested in these traits which provide reliable clues about an individual’s potential reproductive viability. Heterosexual men often value female beauty and physical attractiveness highly in women. It is thought that this is because certain attributes are associated with fertility and reproductive value  . Evolutionary psychologists propose that men possess perceptual mechanisms which have evolved to detect these traits as a means of determining whether or not a woman is a desirable potential mate.

Therefore, a female desiring to promote her reproductive value can manipulate a male’s evaluation of her by enhancing her anatomical features.[35] By undergoing plastic and cosmetic surgery, these desired and admired features of human female beauty can be acquired in a permanent state by women who do not naturally possess these signals. Cosmetic surgery is a relatively new concept and it is not yet fully understood what psychological mechanisms underlie these procedures. But it is suggested that cosmetic surgery may act as a form of intra-sexual competition, whereby women compete with each other to have assets which are considered to be the most desirable by the opposite sex. The fact that cosmetic surgery is much more common in women than in men could reflect women's awareness of the importance of physical attractiveness to potential mates.

Waist-to-hip ratio
Evolutionary theory proposes that a woman’s waist-to-hip ratio is one such signal of fertility to potential male mates. Before puberty, males and females have fat deposits in similar places but puberty triggers hormones in females which inhibit fat stores on the abdominal region and stimulates deposits in the hip and buttock region, therefore changing a woman’s wait-to-hip ratio. Menopause also changes a woman’s wait-to-hip ratio, with more fat being stored in the mid-region of the body. Waist-to-hip ratio is therefore proposed as a reliable signal of age and consequently reproductive status. Furthermore, waist-to-hip ratio has been found to be a reliable indicator of fertility - for example, one study found that women with a high waist-to-hip ratio had more problems conceiving children than those with lower ratios.

Liposuction is a very common procedure which can be used to help women achieve a waist-to-hip ratio that is desirable to mates according to evolutionary theory. In addition, micro-fat grafting surgery is a procedure in which fat tissue is take from the waist region and implanted on the buttocks resulting in a lower waist-to-hip ratio. One study demonstrates the effect that this surgery can have on male opinion. Photographs of women who had just undergone micro-fat grafting surgery were rated by men as being more attractive than the same women’s pre-operative photograph.

Other Examples
Breast Augmentations, which can alter the size and shape of breasts, were the most common cosmetic procedure in 2014 in the USA. Surgery enables people to achieve 'large shapely symmetrical breasts'. This is thought to be attractive to men, according to evolutionary theory because breast shape and size is an indicator of fertility and youth. As a woman ages, her breasts may change shape and begin to droop, which could send signals to potential mates that she is no longer in her most fertile stage in her lifespan.

Surgery that targets signs of aging of the face makes up a large proportion of cosmetic procedures carried out each year. The Times of India lists '17 Cosmetic Procedures to Look Younger' which includes many treatments targeting the face. This focus on looking youthful could reflect the importance that evolutionary theory places on a woman's age in terms of mate value. Studies have found that cross-culturally men prefer women who are younger than them and it is calculated by Buss (1989) that men prefer to marry women who are 24.83 years old. This age roughly corresponds to the age when women are at their most fertile during their lifespan. Signs of youthfulness shown in the face include fuller lips, little or no wrinkles and smooth skin and it is proposed that men may have evolved to find these features attractive. Cosmetic surgery enables older women to achieve these aforementioned characteristics of youthfulness.

Dishonest Signalling
Honest signals (for example, waist-to-hip ratio, breast size or wrinkles) work on the basis that they honestly communicate information about that person's reproductive value to a potential mate. But cosmetic surgery alters a person's attractiveness, without improving their true reproductive value. Therefore, cosmetic surgery can be considered to be a dishonest signal. Dishonest signals are thought to arise from the conflicting intentions of men and women in their mating strategies. Both males and females commonly use deception in order to attract a mate, with women placing focus on enhancing their physical appearance, among other things.