User:Emiilymaldonado/sandbox

gives them a task to do.

Sociology of marriage
'…”Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild argues in The Second Shift'' that despite changes in perceptions of the purpose of marriage and the economic foundations for marriage, women continue to do the bulk of care work to the detriment of the American family. Hochschild illustrates the ways in which an unequal division of the second shift undermines family welfare by reducing marital equality and spousal satisfaction.'''

- Today we see a modified version of a homemaker and breadwinner marriage where the woman adopts a breadwinner role but is still expected to take care of the home. This is considered to be a neo-traditionalist where one believes that a woman is expected to work if she desires but only if it doesn't interfere with her real domestic job at home. Consequently, this forces women into disadvantaged career opportunities that are structured around the primary obligation to be a homemaker and reasserts the gender labor market inequality.

The intersection of class and gender
'''….. “Class-disadvantaged men and women do not have the same temporal flexibility that allows them to make decisions on how to allocate their time. They face stricter constraints on their work hours and policies, thus making it impossible for them to choose whether to spend more time at work or more time at home. For example, even if a class-disadvantaged woman wanted to spend less time at work and more time with her children or in the home, she might not be able due to the inability to get time off from work or take a leave of absence.'''

Notebly, 5 out of 6 mothers would join the workforce if they had sufficient child care while they were away from home. In America, the average cost of infant care is about $9,589 a year and childcare for young children under the age of four will cost about 64% of full-time minimum wage workers’ earnings in one single year. For this reason, low income families will save money by leaving one parent at home outside of the workforce to care for the children. Although, individuals who specialize in unpaid labor in the household may feel subordinated to the breadwinner because they feel they have minimal voice in their relationship and or financial decisions. Additionally, women who take time out of the workforce to raise their young children will lose out on wages, benefits, and social security contributions. To illustrate this, mothers who take three or more years off of work for their family have about 37% decrease in income, this is considered to be the “mommy tax”. This is less noticeable among women who are married to breadwinners because they are willing to share their income and wealth with their stay at home spouse.

'''….”Furthermore, gender shapes the particular variety of flexibility demanded. In advantaged occupations, both men and women are able to acquire the flexibility they so desire. However, they choose to use the control that this affords them in different manners. Women cut back on paid work hours and take leaves to handle domestic labor and child-care. In other words, they make job sacrifices. On the other hand, men are less likely to utilize family-friendly policies to make work sacrifices; they spend less at home and more time working. In essence, both men and women of class-advantaged occupations use the flexibility that their status provides them to "enact neotraditional gender expectations".:424'''

Moreover, men also have a workplace advantage because employers portray fathers as more committed, productive, and responsible than men without children. Working-class men tend to emphasize bread winning masculinity while middle-class men focus on the traditional gender-based division of labor. On average fathers spend about forty-three hours a week working for pay and eighteen hours per week on the house and kids. This comes out to fathers doing about two-thirds of the paid work and one-third of the unpaid work.

'''…… “Thus, class-disadvantage makes it more difficult for both men and women to adhere to traditional gender expectations. The researchers showed that class advantage is used to "do gender" in traditional ways, while class disadvantage may lead to a violation of traditional gender expectations in a way that "undoes gender".:431”'''

Today we see a shift in gender roles with twice as many stay at home fathers then there were two decades ago. Four out of five of the stay at home fathers report that they are only home due to disabilities, illness, in school, unemployed or retired. But race also plays a factor in employment for fathers. African American, Hispanic, Asian men and men with limited education are more likely to stay at home than white highly educated men.

Motherhood and work-

Gender and work-family balance in marriage
'''…...“There is empirical evidence in support of both theories. Some research supports the convergence of men's and women's work experiences: both men and women make adjustments in their marriage and personal lives to meet their employer's expectations, while also making adjustments at work to maintain their marital and family obligations. However, the analysis from the abovementioned study supports the gender differences model. Gender differences exist in the division of household labor and chores, with men working more hours and women spending more time on domestic and child-care responsibilities.”'''

On average mothers spend twenty-five hours a week working for pay and thirty-two hours doing unpaid work.The introduction of parenthood changes the gender division of labor between men and women both inside and outside the home. Dual parent households allocate household work and paid work efficiently to maximize family income. Consequently, women are left to specialize in unpaid household work because women are presumed to be more efficient at childcare and generally earn less than men in the labor force. Many women either minimize, shift or completely dismiss their initial career or education aspirations when anticipating parenthood.

CITATIONS-

Mickelson, Kristin D., and Susanne N. Biehle. 2017. "Gender and the Transition to Parenthood: Introduction to the Special Issue." Sex Roles 76(5-6):271-275 ( https://manowar.tamucc.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1868549558?accountid=7084 ).

https://search.proquest.com/docview/1868549558?accountid=7084https://manowar.tamucc.edu/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/1868549558?accountid=7084

Sanchez, L., & Thomson, E. (1997). Becoming mothers and fathers: Parenthood, gender, and the division of labor. Gender and Society, 11(6), 747-772. DOI:10.1177/089124397011006003

BASS, B. (2015). PREPARING FOR PARENTHOOD? Gender, Aspirations, and the Reproduction of Labor Market Inequality. Gender and Society, 29(3), 362-385. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.manowar.tamucc.edu/stable/43669976

https://www.jstor.org/stable/43669976?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

Glauber, R., & Gozjolko, K. (2011). Do Traditional Fathers Always Work More? Gender Ideology, Race, and Parenthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 73(5), 1133-1148. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.manowar.tamucc.edu/stable/41329652

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41329652?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents

Wade, L. M., & Ferree, M. M. (2019). Gender. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. doi: 978-0-393-66796-7

DRAFT OF RESEARCH INFORMATION- didnt make the cut

Motherhood expectations-

Mothers are presumed to be the primary parent whereas the father is considered to the secondary parent. Mothers do not receive the same messages of encouragement that being an active parent is fun and important like fathers do because it is assumed that mothers are already wholly invested in their new identity. (Wade & Ferree)

The researchers found that many of the women who experience postpartum depression (PPD) experience it right after the birth of their child, whereas men's PPD may take several months to appear and is strongly dependent upon the maternal postpartum distress. Parental postpartum depression is strongly contingent upon the lack of social support new mothers receive from their spouse or family members during or after the birth of their child. Other factors such as planned versus not planned childbirth, demographics like the financial stability and relationship status, as well as the prior mental health of the couple are also key factors that may contribute to the potential risk of experiencing PPD. It is evident that there is a gendered aspect of the guilt that arises from a lack of an adequate work-home balance. This guilt consequently contributes to the added stress of parenting in which is overwhelming felt among mothers and only subsequently felt by fathers.

Out of the sample of 60 childless young adults, 77% of women in comparison to only 10% of the men in her research mentioned parenthood or childcare when addressing their projected professional careers. As a result, many women either minimize, shift or completely dismiss their initial career or education aspirations when anticipating parenthood. Consequently, this forces women into disadvantaged career opportunities and reasserts the gender labor market inequality. This research illustrates the early gendered anticipation of parenthood between men and women as well as the impact of children on women's career choices even before their children are born.

Motherhood statistics-

On average mothers spend twenty-five hours a week working for pay and thirty-two hours doing unpaid work.

-In about 40% of households, women are the breadwinners

- by 2028 women are expected to flip or close the gender wage gap

-. Mothers also spend four fewer hours of leisure time than traditionally employed fathers.(Wade & Ferree)

Fatherhood expectations-

Fathers are portrayed to be incompetent parents when left alone to care for their children and maintain household duties in the media and film. We typically see the mother swoop in and save the day for the father. As a consequence of this exposure, many individuals internalize the idea that housework and childcare are feminized activities reserved just for women. When fathers step in to perform parent task it is considered to be “helping mom out” or “giving mom a break”. Traditional fathers can be an adequate “assistant” to mothers but only if their partner gives them a task to do.

parenthood reinforces the traditional gendered division of labor by increasing the responsibilities and mental/physical labor work for mothers and not for fathers is consistent throughout generations.