User:Emmanuel Serto/sandbox/The Protestant Reformation (1517): Factors leading to the Revolt

 The Protestant Reformation (1517): Factors leading to the Uprising  1. Introduction  In its simplest term, the Protestant Reformation is defined as a religious movement of the sixteenth century that began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulted in the creation of Protestant churches. 1 According to Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms, the Protestant Reformation is defined as the sixteenth-century European movement led by figures such as Martin Luther (1483-1546), Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531), and John Calvin (1509-64) that developed Protestant theology and Protestant churches in the context of the predominant Roman Catholicism. As a result, the term Protestantism was coined to mean the understandings of Christian faith and theology that emerged from the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation and that led to the formation of numerous church bodies. 2 The Protestant Reformation was one of the most far-reaching events of the twentieth century. It ended the ancient superiority of the Catholic Church in Western Europe and brought changes to political and economic developments. Even after its 500-year anniversary (with 2017 officially being designated the "Lutherjahr" 3 in Germany), it continues to interest social scientists for several reasons. First, the economic outcomes of the Reformation are of varied importance for debates concerning the emergence of economic growth in Western Europe as well as for our understanding of comparative economic development. Second, the role of economic development and innovations in communications technology and media in instigating change in the Reformation has broader comparative implications. Third, the case of the Reformation is an important example of institutional change, the origins and effects of which are areas of importance in economics as well as political science and sociology. 4

 2. Situation of Europe before the Protestant Reformation  In his book, &#8220;An Introduction to Church History,&#8221; Dr. F. Hrangkhuma writes, &#8220;The Church had been misled by the Devil so much that it refused to budge 5 at the many cries for reformation. God had to work in such a way that a combination of several factors might pave the way for the spiritual reformation which the Church badly needed.&#8221; 6 It is, thus, essential to briefly look into the situation of the nations of Europe on the eve of the Protestant Reformation and outline the causes and factors from it.  2.1 Political Condition  As Feudalism began to break down, many European nations started having national feelings. This is because national government took the place of the Feudal system in which the royal government tended to be absolute. England, France and Spain, three of the great four powers in Europe at the beginning of the sixteenth century had strong national governments. Even Germany, the fourth great power and usually ruled by foreign emperors as the Holy Roman Empire, had an urge for unity and nationalism. 7 As consolidation and nationalism were on the rise, and the increased powers of the kings checked the power of the popes over the people, the formation of national churches controlled the power of the popes. Thus, the popes&#8217; efforts to crush the Reformation were less effective. 8

 2.2 Socio-Economic Conditions  By 1500, social conditions had changed to a great extent. Men could rise to higher social ranks by their ability or quality. When serfdom was fast disappearing, out of the free farmers arose a new middle class which generally supported changes made by the Reformation. This period saw a new consciousness of power and success, an age bristling with new opportunities. Geographical discoveries and the availability of raw materials transformed the economy from agriculture to commerce and trade. As such, there was a rise of a wealthy middle class from every nation. Trade became international rather than intercity and money became important. This rising merchant middle class resented the draining of their wealth to the international church under the pope in Rome, resulting in a much influence on the course of the Reformation. 9 On the other hand, the peasants were severely oppressed. Many of them were scarcely able to earn a living. Taxes or contributions to either Church or State seemed a painful demand. The introduction of the Roman code of law worked new hardship. So wretched was their condition in Germany that in a few years after Luther's rebellion came the Peasants' Revolt. 10 Geographical and scientific discoveries of the fifteenth century, taking root from the Renaissance, also play a pivotal role in paving the way for a revolution in every field of human endeavours. The discovery of new world, a new understanding of the universe, invention of gun powder that revolutionized the art of warfare and affected political development, invention of the printing press and revival of the arts were the important elements that fuelled the Reformation. 11

 2.3 Religious Conditions The condition of the Church on the eve of the Protestant Reformation was gradual mix of piety and lukewarmness, existing alongside each other. In the words of Dr. Hrangkhuma, &#8220;immorality, corruption and theological bankruptcy without dynamic leadership&#8221; characterised the Church. 12

 2.3.1 The Downfall of the Papacy After Boniface, whose ambition was to have &#8220;supreme authority both in temporal and spiritual realms,&#8221; became the pope in 1294, there arose a dispute between him and two kings, Edward I of England and Philip the Fair of France; concerning the right of the kings to take church property in their countries which raised the question whether the church or the state should rule within the national territory. Boniface lost the battle, and was captured by Philip the Fair when another quarrel broke out. He was kept in prison for three days, and died shortly after that in 1303. These events caused a deep incurable wound to the medieval papacy, the power that had ruled the world was put to open shame and the new political force of nationalism struck it down and took its place. 13

 2.3.2 The Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1309-1378)  The king of France, Philip the Fair, was successful in having a Frenchman chosen as the pope, Clement V. The new pope yielded to the king's representations (and also fearing the political factions in Rome from whom popes had previously to fly) determined to remain in France. After four years of wandering, he took up his residence at Avignon, where for seventy years he and his successors resided. This period is known as the Babylonian Captivity of the Church. Away from the Eternal City and residing in an obscure French town, the papacy forfeited considerably its influence, and, in public estimation at least, lost much of its independent and international character. 14

 2.3.3 The Great Schism  Even though the Babylonian Captivity came to an end in 1377, but was soon followed by something worse. The Western Schism arose in 1378 and continued to humiliate and distract the Church for forty years. Gregory XI, the last of the French popes, brought the Babylonian Captivity to a close by transferring the papal court from Avignon to Rome. He died soon after, and an Italian, who took the name of Urban VI, was elected to succeed him. The French influence was not satisfied, and proceeded to elect an antipope, who took up his residence at Avignon. When the pope and anti-pope died, their successors were chosen by their respective followings, and &#8220;the wretched division continued until 1409, when it became still more complicated.&#8221; 15

 2.3.4 Corruption of the Church  By the Middle Ages, 16 the papacy was secularized and changed into a selfish tyranny whose rule was more and more unbearable. According to Dr. Hrangkhuma, &#8220;The popes of this time were generally of low morals.&#8221; Alexander VI, who was called the monster of iniquity; Julius II, who was a politician and a statesman, leading his army with sword in hand helmet on head; Leo X, a pleasure loving man; Henry, the bishop of Liege, a monster of depravity, etc. made up the list. Simony 17 and Nepotism 18  grew unchecked and uncontrolled. Pluralism, i.e., holding of more than one bishopric, and absenteeism 19 went hand in hand. Dr. Hrangkhuma writes, &#8220;There was widespread ignorance in all circles, particularly among the clergy. Some hardly knew the order of the alphabet.&#8221; 20 Scripture and preaching were neglected and had reference mostly to indulgences, alms, pilgrimages, and processions. The main duty of the priests was to perform by magic words the miracle of transubstantiation, to offer the sacrifice of the mass for the living and the dead in a foreign language, i.e., Latin. 21

 3. Key Factors of the Protestant Reformation  While the situations and conditions discussed ultimately resulted in the rise of the Reformation, it is crucial to mention some of the following factors that had direct impact on the Protestant Reformation:

 3.1 Renaissance  The most important factor for the Protestant Reformation was the rebirth of learning known to history as the Renaissance. Dr. Hrangkhuma writes that this was the root cause of all the changes taking place in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 22 This movement began in Italy with Petrarch about the middle of the fourteenth century. It was an effort to supplant the somewhat barbarous language and culture of Europe by the introduction of classic learning. Later, it received a new impulse from the arrival in Italy of that distinguished Greek scholar, Manuel Chrysoloras. 23

 3.2 The Rise of Nationalism  The period of the Babylonian Captivity of the Church (or Avignon Papacy) came at a time when the ideology of nationalism was on the rise. Hilaire Belloc, an English historian, writes, &#8220;This change (or rather interlude, for the change was not permanent) fell just at the moment when a national spirit was beginning to develop in the various regions of Europe&#8230;&#8221; The Hundred Years War between England and France (1337-1453), which ended with the campaigns of Joan of Arc and her successors, only &#8220;enhanced national feeling,&#8221; and thus weakened the religious bond that had previously held together Christians throughout Western Europe. 24

 3.3 The Black Death 25  A plague broke out in Europe in 1347-1350, and by the time it was over, somewhere between 30-60% of Europe&#8217;s population was dead. Belloc believes that this incident &#8220;had most to do with the deplorable splitting up of Christendom into separate independent nations,&#8221; and was perhaps most responsible for laying the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation: &#8220;In the first place, as always happens when men are severely tried, the less fortunate men became violently hostile towards the more fortunate. There were risings and revolutionary movements. Prices were disturbed, there was a snapping of continuity in a host of institutions. The names of the old institutions were kept, but the spirit changed. For instance, the great monasteries of Europe kept their old riches but fell to half their numbers.&#8221; Belloc writes, &#8220;The Black Death had not only shaken the physical and political structure of European society. It had begun to affect the Faith itself. Horror had bred too much despair.&#8221;

 3.4 Mysticism 26  The recurrence of mysticism clearly proved that people were hungry for reality in religious experience. According to Dr. Hrangkhuma, &#8220;The mystics were mainly dominated by two specific sentiments: a genuine sorrow for the decay of the Church, and a strong longing for reformation.&#8221; It (mysticism) was a reaction against the formal and cold scholastic theology and the mechanical sacramental ritual in the church, and was an attempt to personalize religion. The mystics laid the stress on inner spirituality that made a valuable contribution to later reform.

 4. Conclusion  The period 1517-1648 was a time of unusual turmoil and unrest. Opposition to foreign dominion, jealousies and mutual hatreds at home, new inventions and discoveries, offering vast opportunities to ambition, a hungry peasantry, greedy nobles, scheming, petty rulers, the Church demoralized from the causes already named, the State anxious for dominion even in spirituals&#8211;these were the factors that prepared the way for the huge upheaval which history records as the Reformation. The fusion of these factors created a growing demand for the reform of the Church and the papacy. Europe, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, was in a highly explosive state, and a very small incident could ignite an explosion that could forever destroy the unity of Christendom&#8211;such as a small incident when a German theologian protested against the Church&#8217;s sale of indulgences!

1 WordWeb dictionary &#169; 2006 by Princeton University, New Jersey, USA. 2 Donald K. McKim, &#8220;Protestant Reformation,&#8221; In Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms (Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 1996), 225. 3 Luther Anniversary Year, source: English-German Dictionary, https://www.dict.cc/german-english/Lutherjahr.html. 4 Sascha O. Becker et al., &#8220;Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation,&#8221; ESI Working Paper 16-13, July 2016, http://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/esi_working_papers/178. 5 To budge means to move, shift, or stir. 6 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction to Church History, 4th ed. (Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 1996), 168. 7 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 168-169. 8 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 171. 9 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 171. 10 Hugh P. Smyth, The Reformation, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Extension Press, 1922), 19. 11 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 172-174. 12 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 174. 13 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 175. 14 Hugh P. Smyth, The Reformation, 12. 15 Hugh P. Smyth, The Reformation, 12. 16 The period of history between classical antiquity and the Italian Renaissance. 17 The buying and selling of church positions. 18 Appointing of children and close relatives to positions. 19 (Habitual) absence from work 20 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 178. 21 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 176-178. 22 F. Hrangkhuma, An Introduction, 172. 23 Hugh P. Smyth, The Reformation, 18. 24 Daniel Lattier, &#8220;5 Causes of the Protestant Reformation (Besides Indulgences)&#8221;, Published: October 31, 2017, https://www.intellectualtakeout.org/article/5-causes-protestant-reformation-besides-indulgences. 25 Daniel Lattier, &#8220;5 Causes of the Protestant Reformation&#8221; 26 A religion based on mystical (mysterious or occult or secret) communion with an ultimate reality.