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 * Fix wording that implies value judgments
 * Clean up the reference section
 * See if an exact date of death can be found
 * Add section on religion?

Early Life
Virginia M. Alexander was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on February 4, 1899 to Hilliard Alexander and Virginia Pace.[3] She had four siblings, including the prominent attorney Raymond Pace Alexander.[4] [1] Alexander's mother died when she was 4 years old, and at age 13 her father's riding academy closed. Alexander withdrew from school to help relieve the resulting economic strain on her family, but her father insisted that she finish her education.[cite]

Education
Alexander attended high school at the William Penn High School for Girls, where she graduated with honors before receiving a scholarship that allowed her to attend the University of Pennsylvania to complete her undergraduate education.[3] Alexander took work as a waitress, clerk, and maid in order to cover her living expenses through college.[CtF] She was also a member of the black sorority Delta Sigma Theta.[5] She continued her medical education at the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania. With the help of private philanthropy, Alexander finished medical school in good standing.[cite]

When Alexander began looking for a medical internship, she faced rejection from many Philadelphia hospitals on the basis of race.[cite CtF] The hospital operated by the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania would also not accept her, but the school did help Alexander and another student, Mae McCarroll, secure internships at the Kansas City Colored Hospital in Missouri in 1925.[4] [3] Alexander remained in Kansas City to complete a pediatrics-surgery residency at Wheatley-Provident Hospital.[3]

Career
In 1927, Alexander returned to Philadelphia. She was passionate about public health, but pursued clinical practice out of financial necessity.[3]

Aspiranto Health Home
Alexander founded the Aspiranto Health Home in her renovated house in 1930.[3] Aspiranto provided "socialized" health services to African American community members in North Philadelphia.[6] Her work in private practice helped to fund Alexander's charitable medical care. Services provided by Aspiranto, often free of cost, included general medical care, obstetric care, and emergency medical care.[6] [3]Alexander's colleague Helen Octavia Dickens was also an active practitioner at the house.[6]

Community Involvement and Activism
Alexander was active in a variety of different social, professional, and academic organizations. She practiced medicine at Frederick Douglass Memorial Hospital and Nurses’ Training School, the Hospital of Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Hospital, and performed administrative work at Convalescent Hospital.[6] [7]

In 1931, Alexander officially became a Quaker. She would go on to use her position in White Quaker circles to push her cause of improved public health practice for African American patients.[3]

In her community, Alexander was active on the board of Wharton Settlement, the Young Woman’s Christian Association, the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, and the Religious Society of Friends, where she was active in the Race Relations Committee, the Institute of Race Relations, and the Young Friends Movement.[2] She began formal study of public health disparities for black and white patients in Philadelphia in 1935 as part of her involvement with the Institute of Race Relations (see "Publications").[3]

Public Health Career
Alexander was admitted to Yale University in 1936 to study public health, but had to leave in 1937 due to troubles related to her lupus.[3] Shortly after leaving Yale, she accepted a position at Howard University as an assistant university physician for women students.[3] In 1939, she supervised a public health project at Howard that would eventually lead to her obtaining her master's degree in public health from Yale. [3]

Alexander worked with the US Public Health Service from 1943 to 1945 at the Slossfield Clinic located in Birmingham, Alabama.[3] Afterwards, she returned to Philadelphia where she resumed her medical practice in addition to working with local Quakers on race relations.[3]

Alexander died on July 24, 1949 after years battling lupus.[3]

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= = Cadaver Page Edits ==

Edits to the Section: To Do

 * discuss chemicals for both embalming and plastination in more detail
 * more in-depth description of embalming
 * edit the section on decomposition if necessary

Draft Article Section - Preserving Cadavers for Use in Dissection
For a cadaver to be viable and ideal for anatomical study and dissection, the body must be refrigerated or the preservation process must begin within 24 hours of death. This preservation may be accomplished by embalming using a mixture of embalming fluids, or a with relatively new method called plastination. Both methods have advantages and disadvantages in regards to preparing bodies for anatomical dissection in the educational setting.

Embalming with Fluids
The practice of embalming via chemical fluids has been used for centuries. The main objectives of this form of preservation are to keep the body from decomposing, help the tissues retain their color and softness, prevent both biological and environmental hazards, and preserve the anatomical structures in their natural forms. This is accomplished with a variety of chemical substances that can be separated generally into groups by their purposes. Disinfectants are used to kill any potential microbes. Preservatives are used to halt the action of decomposing organisms, deprive these organisms of nutrition, and alter chemical structures in the body to prevent decomposition. Various modifying agents are used to maintain the moisture, pH, and osmotic properties of the tissues along with anticoagulants to keep blood from clotting within the cardiovascular system. Other chemicals may also be used to keep the tissue from carrying displeasing odors or particularly unnatural colors.

Embalming practice has changed a great deal in the last few centuries. Modern embalming for anatomical purposes no longer includes evisceration, as this disrupts the organs in ways that would be disadvantageous for the study of anatomy. As with the mixtures of chemicals, embalmers practicing today can use different methods for introducing fluids into the cadaver. Fluid can be injected into the arterial system (typically through the carotid or femoral arteries), the main body cavities, under the skin, or the cadaver can be introduced to fluids at the outer surface of the skin via immersion.

Different embalming services use different types and ratios of fluids, but typical embalming chemicals include formaldehyde, phenol, methanol, and glycerin. These fluids are combined in varying ratios depending on the source, but are generally also mixed with large amounts of water.

Chemicals and their Roles in Embalming
Formaldehyde is very widely used in the process of embalming. It is a fixative, and kills bacteria, fungus, and insects. It prevents decay by keeping decomposing microorganisms from surviving on and in the cadaver. It also cures the tissues it is used in so that they can not serve as nutrients for these organisms. While formaldehyde is a good antiseptic, it has certain disadvantages as well. When used in embalming, it causes blood to clot and tissues to harden, it turns the skin gray, and its fumes are both malodorous and toxic if inhaled. However, its abilities to prevent decay and tan tissue without ruining its structural integrity have led to its continued widespread use to this day.

Phenol is a disinfectant that functions as an antibacterial and antifungal agent. It prevents the growth of mold in its liquefied form. Its disinfectant qualities rely on its ability to denature proteins and dismantle cell walls, but this unfortunately has the added side effect of drying tissues and occasionally results in a degree of discoloration.

Methanol is an additive with disinfectant properties. It helps regulate the osmotic balance of the embalming fluid, and it is a decent antirefrigerant. It has been noted to be acutely toxic to humans.

Glycerin is a wetting agent that preserves liquid in the tissues of the cadaver. While it is not itself a true disinfectant, mixing it with formaldehyde greatly increases the effectiveness of formaldehyde's disinfectant properties.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Traditionally Embalmed Cadavers
The use of traditionally embalmed cadavers is and has been the standard for medical education. Many medical and dental institutions still show a preference for these today, even with the advent of more advanced technology like digital models or synthetic cadavers. Cadavers embalmed with fluid do present a greater health risk to anatomists than these other methods as some of the chemicals used in the embalming process are toxic, and imperfectly embalmed cadavers may carry a risk of infection.

Plastination
Gunther von Hagens invented plastination at Heidelberg University in Heidelberg, Germany in 1977. This method of cadaver preservation involves the replacement of fluid and soluble lipids in a body with plastics. The resulting preserved bodies are called plastinates.

Whole-body plastination begins with much the same method as traditional embalming; a mixture of embalming fluids and water are pumped through the cadaver via arterial injection. After this step is complete, the anatomist may choose to dissect parts of the body to expose particular anatomical structures for study. After any desired dissection is completed, the cadaver is submerged in acetone. The acetone draws the moisture and soluble fats from the body and flows in to replace them. The cadaver is then placed in a bath of the plastic or resin of the practitioner's choice and the step known as forced impregnation begins. The bath generates a vacuum that causes acetone to vaporize, drawing the plastic or resin into the cells as it leaves. Once this is done the cadaver is positioned, the plastic inside it is cured, and the specimen is ready for use.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Plastinates
Plastinates are advantageous in the study of anatomy as they provide durable, non-toxic specimens that are easy to store. However, they still have not truly gained ground against the traditionally embalmed cadaver. Plastinated cadavers are not accessible for some institutions, some educators believe the experience gained during embalmed cadaver dissection is more valuable, and some simply do not have the resources to acquire or use plastinates.