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A historical tragedy that explores the nature of conflicting loyalties, Samuel Daniel’s, “The Tragedy of Cleopatra” gives a dramatic interpretation of the final days of Cleopatra, the final Pharaoh of Egypt. First published by Samuel Daniel in 1593/1594. Set in Egypt and Rome, Cleopatra was a closet drama that was never performed, but written in honor of Lady Pembrooke (Mary Sidney). There is a poem at the beginning of the play that is dedicated to her entitled,

DRAMATIS PERSONAE Cleopatra: Last Pharaoh of Egypt Caesarion: Cleopatra and Julius Caesar’s son. Philostratus: Philosopher to the court of Cleopatra Seleucus: Attendant to Cleopatra Rodon: Attendant to Cleopatra, tutor to Caesarion Dircetus: Follower of Antony Diomedes: Attendant to Cleopatra Charmiam: Attendant to Cleopatra, hand-maiden Iras: Attendant to Cleopatra, hand-maiden. Octavius/Caesar: First Emperor of Rome, Julius Caesar’s adopted son Dolabella: follower of Octavius Proculeius: Chief messenger, follower of Octavius Titius: Follower of Octavius Arius: Philosopher to Octavius’s court

First Act The first act begins with Cleopatra sending away her son Caesarion to India with his tutor Rodon after Egypt is taken over by Octavius. Through the dialogue, it becomes apparent that Cleopatra abandoned Marc Antony during an important battle with Rome and died as a result. She is deeply tortured over this decision, for fear Caesarion will be killed regardless, but sends him away in the hopes that he will be able to return and avenge Egypt. Meanwhile, Octavius learns from a servant of the goings on in Egypt and deeply laments the loss of Antony (his adopted fathers friend) but his concern lies in trying to prevent Cleopatra from killing herself so that he can parade her humiliation and defeat through the streets of Rome. Cleopatra agrees to this on the condition that she is able to follow the proper burial rites, and swears that she will remain in Marc Antony’s tomb for the duration which Octavius’ proxy agrees to. Octavius also tells his servants that he plans to travel to Egypt in order to ensure that Cleopatra will be obedient to his demands. The chorus at the end of the act debates what caused the fall of Egypt (Hubris and Nemesis). Second Act This act begins with a soliloquy from Cleopatra where she laments the mistakes of her life (living too frivolously, being too arrogant and the events that lead to Marc Antony’s death). Her servants stumble upon this soliloquy and debate interrupting her but allow her to continue in her regretful monologue. She specifically mentions seeing Marc Antony’s legitimate wife if she’s forced to journey to Rome, and that Marc Antony warned her against trusting anyone associated with Octavius). She goes on to discuss her loss of her beauty and how that has played a role in her downfall. In Rome, Octavius also voices a long monologue that talks about the downfall of Rome and the isolation that accompanies being a powerful ruler. The chorus at the end of this act is disdainful, claiming that rulers who live too extravagantly lead by example and as a result, the entire country falls into ruin. Third Act Act three occurs in Alexandria, between two philosophers, Philostratus and Arius. Through their dialogue, it becomes apparent that Arius is Roman and Philostratus is a defector from Egypt to Rome. He thanks Arius repeatedly for giving him a positive reference that let him escape to Rome. Philostratus goes further, and repents that despite his work in philosophy, where he believed that men should embrace death when their time arrives, he was unable to follow his own advice when in Egypt. Arius consoles him, saying that Egypt’s downfall was a predetermined act of the gods, and that being a philosopher does not separate him from a common man’s behaviours. They also discuss how Octavius must kill Caesarion because he is the blood son of Julius Caesar, and therefore his claim to Rome is much more legitimate than Octavius, who was adopted. In Egypt, Octavius and Cleopatra meet face to face with their servants and have a lengthy discussion about Octavius’s victory over Egypt. Octavius lauds it over her that her country is in ruin, and Cleopatra retorts that he only doesn’t trust her because he is projecting his own paranoia onto her. Octavius lies to Cleopatra by promising her that her children will be allowed to live if she’s obedient. The third chorus foreshadows that Cleopatra will kill herself because Opinion will sway her to do it.

Fourth Act Rodon and Seleucus begin act four with Rodon lamenting his betrayal of Cleopatra when he delivered Caesarion to Octavius. Rodon tells his friend that now he is considered by Octavius to be a traitor, and his life is essentially ruined. Seleucus also was Cleopatra’s servant and tells Rodon that he too betrayed her when he realized that Rome was going to take over Egypt. Both men regret their traitorous, self serving impulses because Octavius scorns them for it. In the second scene, Cleopatra enters with her servants reading a letter from Dolabella (Octavius’ servant). In the letter, Dolabella proclaims his love for Cleopatra and secretly informs her that his master plans to kill all of her children once he has her in captivity. Cleopatra rejoices that her aging but infamous beauty had the power to be a tool once again, “What, hath my face yet power to win a lover?” (4.2.1). She dispatches her only loyal servant Diomedes to procure figs covering asps (her chosen method of suicide). After Diomedes leaves, Cleopatra delivers a long and very sincere monologue where she talks about her impending suicide, and her dead lover Antony, all the while laying flowers at Antony’s grave. In Rome, Caesarion faces his death at the hands of Caesar and he gives a monologue about the guiltiness of Octavius and the Roman Empire. The chorus discusses how just and lawful Egypt used to be before Disorder descended upon it. Act Five The last act of the play opens with Titius reporting to Dolabella that Cleopatra received his letter. Titius relays her response, Cleopatra said that if she had any room in her heart, she would gladly give it to him but she is too old and embittered. She also transmits her final wish that she be buried beside Marc Antony. In Egypt, Cleopatra waits for Diomedes to arrive with the hidden asps. When he arrives at the tomb in disguise, she takes the figs and gives him letters to take to Rome. After a short soliloquy about death, Cleopatra is bitten by the asp and dies. Her servants obediently follow suit and also kill themselves. The chorus ends the play on a dark and ambiguous note regarding the perilous situation in Egypt. Themes: Courtly Love:| The courtly love that existed between Marc Antony and Cleopatra is an important theme in the piece. Because she gained so much in her connection with Antony, it’s up for debate as to whether or not Cleopatra actually loved him or if she was using him in order to maintain her power. Love is viewed in this play as a weakness in powerful people. Aging: Aging is often discussed in the play, because the action occurs later in Cleopatra’s life and she frequently refers to all that her beauty and prominent sexuality helped her accomplish when she was in power (for example her seduction of Julius Caesar, Mark Antony and the attraction of Dolabella). However, Cleopatra’s beauty and sexuality are discussed negatively by Octavius and his servants. Her blatant and unapologetic sexuality differentiates her from the ideal and silent woman. Trust Trust is a very prominent theme in the play, because of the defecting servants of each leader. Servants continually betray their masters in order to serve their own interests. This ties in closely to the themes of power and isolation because each ruler cannot trust anyone. Power Absolute power corrupts absolutely and this is reiterated many times in the play. Cleopatra is blamed for the state of her country because she and Antony lived too extravagantly and therefore encouraged the citizens of Egypt to live the same way. Octavius also believes that he must kill Caesarion and all of Cleopatra’s children in order to maintain his power.

Influences: There are a couple of texts that heavily influenced Daniel’s play, most specifically Plutarchs Antony, and William Shakespeare’s “The Tragedy of Cleopatra and Antony”. Also it’s important to note that this play was written at the end of Elizabeth’s reign, because of the ambiguity at the end of the play reflects the tenuous state of England when the queen was going to die without leaving an heir.

References:

http://eebo.chadwyck.com.ezproxy.library.uvic.ca/search/full_rec?SOURCE=pgimages.cfg&ACTION=ByID&ID=99851578&FILE=../session/1351893021_4834&SEARCHSCREEN=CITATIONS&VID=16858&PAGENO=49&ZOOM=FIT&VIEWPORT=&SEARCHCONFIG=var_spell.cfg&DISPLAY=AUTHOR&HIGHLIGHT_KEYWORD=param(HIGHLIGHT_KEYWORD)

http://extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/iemls/renplays/Cleopatra%20Samuel%20Daniel%20EDITED%20PLAY%20footnotes.pdf

http://extra.shu.ac.uk/emls/iemls/renplays/CleopatraIntroduction.pdf