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The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a Native American grassroots movement that was founded in the United States in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. A.I.M. was initially formed in urban areas to address systemic issues of poverty and police brutality against Native Americans. A.I.M. soon widened it's focus from urban issues to include many Indigenous Tribal issues that Native American groups have faced due to settler colonialism of the Americas, such as treaty rights, high rates of unemployment, education, cultural continuity, and preservation of Indigenous cultures. The formation of A.I.M. propagated as a result of the United States' Public Law 959 Indian Relocation Act of 1956, alongside Public Law 280, otherwise known as the Indian Termination Act. These policies were enacted by the United States Congress under congressional plenary power. As a result, almost seventy-percent of American Indians relocated to urban centers and left their communal homelands with hopes of economic sustainability. This led to what is known as the Urban Indian. Many urban Indians became transnationals and were then able to form native hubs of belonging in urban centers, leading up to the formation of A.I.M. in these urbanized contexts.

From November 1969 to June 1971, AIM participated in the occupation of the abandoned federal penitentiary known as Alcatraz, organized by seven Indian movements, including the Indians of All Tribes and Richard Oakes, a Mohawk activist.[4] In October 1972, AIM and other Indian groups gathered members from across the United States for a protest in Washington, D.C. known as the Trail of Broken Treaties. According to public documents obtained under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), advanced coordination occurred between Washington, D.C.-based Bureau of Indian Affairs (the BIA staff) and the authors of a twenty-point proposal drafted with the help of the AIM for delivery to the United States government officials focused on proposals intended to enhance United States–Indian relations.

In the decades since AIM's founding, the group has led protests advocating indigenous American interests, inspired cultural renewal, monitored police activities and coordinated employment programs in cities and in rural reservation communities across the United States and indigenous interests outside the United States as well.

History of A.I.M. and the Status of Indian Tribes:
The status of Indian tribes as sovereign nations is further established in the United States Supreme Court case Worcester v. Georgia (1832) where-by it was established that Indian Nations had a nation-to-nation relationship with the United States government as "distinct, independent political communities," upholding under law their rights to self government Indian treaties ratified by the senate are protected under the United States Constitution as, "the supreme law of the land," and comprise much of the legal structure of federal Indian law to this day. Treaty negotiations ceased in 1871, however, one of A.I.M.'s primary objectives has been to re-open Treaty negotiations with the United States "as absolute as that of any other nation." By 1887 the U.S. government entered into the era of allotments, otherwise referred to as the Dawes Act, where by in 1934 tribes owned less than 50 million acres of the 150 million acres they previously had in 1887, and surplus Indian lands were then sold to homesteaders. During this era of allotments was the propagation of another assimilationist program, known as the Indian Boarding schools, utilized as a method of social control. In 1924 Indian tribal members were granted citizenship with the United States without cessation of citizenship to their respective tribal nations. Between 1934-1953 John Collier's Indian Reorganization Act was introduced as a way to establish tribal governments, designed to integrate United States governmental frameworks, and worked to protect what lands were left after allotment.

Termination and the Indian Relocation Act
The termination era was between 1953 and 1966, and is noted as being, "designed to get the government out of the Indian business," by ending all federal support by eliminating the United State governments trust relationship with the Indian tribes. The formation of the Indian Claims Commission in 1946, which worked to extinguish Indian land claims via monetary settlement, is noted as a prelude to much of the conflict between Indian communities regarding U.S. government policies. This led to the enactment of Public Law 280 by congress on August 15, 1953 where 109 federally recognized tribes were terminated. Public Law 280 was applied only to states who had large Native American populations and expanded state criminal jurisdiction into tribal communities, eliminated reservations, cut federal funding, and is noted for those communities effected as, "a time of great suffering." The Indian Relocation Act was an assimilationist policy created concurrently with PL-280 and marketed by the United States government as an Indian urbanization, relocation, and educational program that promised economic sustainability. Many of these promises did not come to fruition and created heightened level of anxiety for urban Indians while reservation Indian land title was extinguished and transferred to Americans for access to land and mineral resources. One example of a PL-280 tribe is the termination of the Klamath Tribes of Oregon where the entire Klamath Reservation was expropriated for access to vast timber resources. With termination, tribal communities were then faced with majority white police forces and agencies via state imposed criminal jurisdiction in tribal communities, leading to increased instances of police brutality and disproportionate rates of imprisonment of American Indians.

Environmental Impacts:
While government-directed Indian termination policies were enforced during the Eisenhower administration, hastily executed uranium mining contracts to permit it (even sanctioning it as "economic progress") preceded the imposition of unprecedented-scale government-sanctioned commercial uranium extraction operations from various parts of traditional Indian western North American tribal lands (not so named under the ancient land-use and resource-sharing ways of Indigenous former inhabitants) and the uranium mining was permitted. However, the uranium mining contracts were signed without tribal permissions, and Navajo workers were not informed of the health risks involved with working in uranium mines. Indigenous people of the Navajo nation articulate that it is the United States governments legal obligation via the Treaty of 1868 and per the United States' Constitutional obligations as the supreme law of the land and the trust relationship established, to adequately safe guard tribal nations from environmental impacts, such as with the radiation exposure in the uranium mines.

Main article: Uranium mining and the Navajo people

American Indian Movement Philosophy
The American Indian Movement Native American grassroots movement that was founded in the United States in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. A.I.M. was initially formed in urban areas to address systemic issues of poverty and police brutality against Native Americans. A.I.M. soon widened it's focus from urban issues to include many Indigenous Tribal issues that Native American groups have faced due to settler colonialism of the Americas, such as treaty rights, high rates of unemployment, education, cultural continuity, and preservation of Indigenous cultures.

A.I.M. and the Civil Rights Movement
Although the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s had an impact on A.I.M., the ideologies of these groups differed in context - for the ascribed impacts of the United States governments assimilation policies, with their attendant reductions in sovereignty, bore the marks of individualism inherent in civil rights advocacy. Citizenship into the United States historically has had complicated and dire consequences on the status of Indian tribes, such as with the United States government's termination policies of the 1950s, however, Native Americans did attend the March on Washington in 1963. In order to have their grievances heard on a national level, much of the practices of the Civil Rights Movement were incorporated into the strategies of early A.I.M., due to social pressures received from the media of the time. As had civil rights and antiwar activists, AIM used the American press and media to present its message to the United States public.

Rise of A.I.M. [edit]
The American Indian Movement Native American grassroots movement that was founded in the United States in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. A.I.M. was initially formed in urban areas to address systemic issues of poverty and police brutality against Native Americans. A.I.M. soon widened it's focus from urban issues to include many Indigenous Tribal issues that Native American groups have faced due to settler colonialism of the Americas, such as treaty rights, high rates of unemployment, education, cultural continuity, and preservation of Indigenous cultures. A.I.M. was founded in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota by Dennis Banks and George Mitchell of the Anishinabe tribal nation. A.I.M. was initially formed in urban areas to address systemic issues of poverty and police brutality against Native Americans, but soon widened it's focus with the addition of new members John Trudell, Herb Powless, Clyde Bellecourt, Russell Means, and Joe Locust.

Prior to A.I.M., the National Indian Youth Council (NIYC) was founded in the mid-1960s by Clyde Warrior of the Cherokee nation, who engaged in a stand off with the State of Washington with other Native American college graduates to uphold treaty and fishing rights in the Pacific Northwest by conducting what were to be called "fish-ins," which incorporated many of the tactics observed by the Civil Rights Movement and used as a way to force the federal government to address tribal issues and concerns that Native communities had. Racial tensions and animosity towards Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest during this time are alleged to parallel tensions in the Jim Crow south, however, these "fish-ins" contributed to the mobilization of Native American communities in the northwest, as well as across the nation. Clyde Warrior published works include Americans Before Columbus. A Lakota Law student Vine DeLoria Jr. was head of the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) during this time period whose published works include Custer Died for Your Sins and We Talk, You Listen.

President Lyndon Johnson
On March 6, 1968, President Johnson signed Executive Order 11399, establishing the National Council on Indian Opportunity (NCIO). While knowing little of the American Indian issues, Johnson allegedly appeared to reconnect the nation's trust responsibility to the tribes and nations to civil rights.[7] President Johnson's positive impact on Indian tribes has, however, received criticism as the positive impacts are critiqued as manifesting as more of a side effect of his war on poverty - these effects eventually dissipated and President Johnson's alleged involvement in Indian tribal affairs during his time were allegedly minimal.

Occupation of Alcatraz
John Trudell and Richard Oakes led the Indians of All Tribes (IAT) occupation of Alcatraz in November of 1969 along with Grace Thorpe and Mad Bear Anderson, in the occupation of Alcatraz from November of 1969 to June of 1971, which ended after nineteen months when United States Marshalls assaulted and arrested many of the occupiers. The occupation reified a historic statute from 1882 that put forth that any unused federal facilities would be reconfigured and appropriated for Indian schools. The Alcatraz proclamation was stated as follows: PROCLAMATION: TO THE GREAT WHITE FATHER AND ALL HIS PEOPLE

We, the native Americans, reclaim the land known as Alcatraz Island in the name of all American Indians by right of discovery.... We feel that this so-called Alcatraz Island is more than suitable for an Indian Reservation, as determined by the white man's own standard. By this we mean that this place resembles most Indian reservations in that:


 * 1) It is isolated from modern facilities, and without adequate means of transportation.
 * 2) It has no fresh running water.
 * 3) It has inadequate sanitation facilities.
 * 4) There are no oil or mineral rights.
 * 5) There is no industry, and so unemployment is great.
 * 6) There are no health care facilities.
 * 7) The soil is rocky and unproductive; and the land does not support game.
 * 8) There are no educational facilities.
 * 9) The population has always exceeded the land base.
 * 10) The population has always been held as prisoners and kept dependent upon others.

Further, it would be fitting and symbolic that ships from all over the world, entering the Golden Gate, would first see Indian land, and thus be reminded of the true history of this nation. This tiny island would be a symbol of the great lands once rules by free and noble Indians.

1970 Occupation of the Mayflower and Mouth Rushmore
During ceremonies on Thanksgiving Day 1970 to commemorate the 350th anniversary of the Pilgrims' landing at Plymouth Rock, AIM seized the replica of the Mayflower in Boston. In 1971, members occupied Mount Rushmore for a few days, as it was created in the Black Hills of South Dakota, long sacred to the Lakota. This area was within the Great Sioux Reservation as created by the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868. After the discovery of gold, in 1874, the federal government took the land in 1877 and sold it for mining and settlement to European Americans.

Occupation of the Coast Guard Station, Lake Michigan
Native American activists in Milwaukee staged a takeover of an abandoned Coast Guard station along the Lake Michigan. The takeover was inspired by the 1969 Alcatraz occupation. Activists cited the Treaty of Fort Laramie and demanded the abandoned federal property revert to the control of the Native peoples of Milwaukee. AIM protestors retained possession of the land, and the land became the site of the first Indian Community School until 1980.[11]

Occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (B.I.A.)
1971-1972

Also in 1971, AIM began to highlight and protest problems with the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), which administered programs and land trusts for Native Americans. The group briefly occupied BIA headquarters in Washington, D.C. A brief arrest, reversal of charges for "unlawful entry" and a meeting with Louis Bruce, the Mohawk/Lakota BIA Commissioner, ended AIM's first event in the capital.[12] In 1972, activists marched across country on the "Trail of Broken Treaties" and took over the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), occupying it for several days and allegedly doing millions of dollars in damage.[13]

PHOTO CREDIT:A member of the Warrior Society Mitakuye Oyasin wears an AIM jacket at the raising of the John T. Williams Memorial Totem Pole, Seattle Center In Congress, the Democratic chairman of the House Subcommittee on Indian Affairs, James Haley from Florida, supported Indian rights; for example, he thought Indians should participate more in "policy matters", but "the right of self-determination is in the Congress as a representative of all the people".[8] In the 1960s Haley met with president Kennedy and then-vice-president Johnson, and pressed for Indian self-determination and control in transactions over land. One struggle was over the long-term leasing of American Indian land.[9] Non-Indian businesses and banks said they could not invest in leases of 25 years, even with generous options, as the time was too short for land-based transactions. Relieving the long-term poverty on most reservations through business partnerships by leasing land was seen as infeasible. A return to the 19th century 99-year leases was seen as a possible solution. But, an Interior Department memo said, "a 99-year lease is in the nature of a conveyance of the land". These battles over land had their beginnings in the 1870s when federal policy often related to wholesale taking, not leases. In the 1950s, many Native Americans believed that leases were too frequently a way for outsiders to control Indian land.

Main article: Tuscarora Reservation

Wallace "Mad Bear" Anderson was a Tuscarora leader in New York in the 1950s. He struggled to resist the New York City planner Robert Moses' plan to take tribal land in upstate New York for use in a state hydropower project to supply New York City. The struggle ended in a bitter compromise.[10]

The Twenty-Points
1972

AIM developed a 20-point list to summarize its issues with federal treaties and promises, which they publicized during their occupation in 1972. Twelve points addressed treaty responsibilities which the protesters believed the U.S. government had failed to fulfill:


 * Restore treaty-making (ended by Congress in 1871).
 * Establish a treaty commission to make new treaties (with sovereign Native Nations).
 * Provide opportunities for Indian leaders to address Congress directly.
 * Review treaty commitments and violations.
 * Have unratified treaties reviewed by the Senate.
 * Ensure that all American Indians are governed by treaty relations.
 * Provide relief to Native Nations as compensation for treaty rights violations.
 * Recognize the right of Indians to interpret treaties.
 * Create a Joint Congressional Committee to reconstruct relations with Indians.
 * Restore 110 million acres (450,000 km2) of land taken away from Native Nations by the United States.
 * Restore terminated rights of Native Nations.
 * Repeal state jurisdiction on Native Nations (Public Law 280).
 * Provide Federal protection for offenses against Indians.
 * Abolish the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
 * Create a new office of Federal Indian Relations.
 * Remedy breakdown in the constitutionally prescribed relationships between the United States and Native Nations.
 * Ensure immunity of Native Nations from state commerce regulation, taxes, and trade restrictions.
 * Protect Indian religious freedom and cultural integrity.
 * Establish national Indian voting with local options; free national Indian organizations from governmental controls.
 * Reclaim and affirm health, housing, employment, economic development, and education for all Indian people.[14]

In 1973 AIM was invited to the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation to help gain justice from border counties' law enforcement and to moderate political factions on the reservation. They became deeply involved and led an armed occupation of Wounded Knee on the

Women of A.I.M.
The groups Women of All Red Nations (W.A.R.N.) in 1974 and the Indigenous Women's Network were led and created by Indigenous women. W.A.R.N. has put women at the forefront of the organization and focused its energies in combating sexism, government sterilization policies, and other injustices.[48] During the 1970s state welfare agencies were found to be removing Indian children from their families and placing them in non-Indian homes at a rate of 25-35 percent. Indigenous activism led to the establishment of the Indian Child Welfare Act in 1978 after experiencing high rates of Indian child removal. Indian women experience high rates of forced and coerced sterilizations in the 1960s and 1970s, where at least 25% of American Indian women were sterilized by the Bureau of Indian Affair's Indian Health Services. American Indian Movement member Mary Crow Dog spoke about Indian women's rights to bodily autonomy in reproductive manners by stating, "like many other Native American women...I had an urge to procreate, as if driven by a feeling that I, personally, had to make up for the genocide suffered by our people in the past." The Indian Health Care Improvement Act was passed in 1976 as a result.

1978[edit]
An American Indian Movement tipi on the grounds of the Washington Monument The Longest Walk (1978) was an AIM-led spiritual walk across the country to support tribal sovereignty and bring attention to 11 pieces of anti-Indian legislation; AIM believed that the proposed legislation would have abrogated Indian Treaties, quantified and limited water rights. The first walk began on February 11, 1978 with a ceremony on Alcatraz Island, where a Sacred Pipe was loaded with tobacco. The Pipe was carried the entire distance. This 3,200-mile (5,100 km)-Walk's purpose was to educate people about the government's continuing threat to Tribal Sovereignty; it rallied thousands representing many Indian Nations throughout the United States and Canada. Traditional spiritual leaders from many tribes participated, leading traditional ceremonies. International spiritual leaders like Nichidatsu Fujii also took part in the Walk.

On July 15, 1978, The Longest Walk entered Washington, D.C. with several thousand Indians and a number of non-Indian supporters. The traditional elders led them to the Washington Monument, where the Pipe carried across the country was smoked. Over the following week, they held rallies at various sites to address issues: the 11 pieces of legislation, American Indian political prisoners, forced relocation at Big Mountain, the Navajo Nation, etc. Non-Indian supporters included the American boxer Muhammad Ali, US Senator Ted Kennedy and the actor Marlon Brando. The Congress voted against a proposed bill to abrogate treaties with Indian Nations. During the week after the activists arrived, Congress passed the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, which allowed them the use of peyote in worship. President Jimmy Carter refused to meet with representatives of The Longest Walk.

The Longest Walk 2

2008[edit]
Thirty years later, AIM led the Longest Walk 2, which arrived in Washington in July 2008. This 8,200-mile (13,200 km)-walk had started from the San Francisco Bay area. The Longest Walk 2 had representatives from more than 100 American Indian nations, and other indigenous participants, such as Maori. It also had non-indigenous supporters. The walk highlighted the need for protection of American Indian sacred sites, tribal sovereignty, environmental protection and action to stop global warming. Participants traveled on either the Northern Route (basically that of 1978) or the Southern Route. Participants crossed a total of 26 states on the two different routes.[17]

Northern Route[edit]
The Northern Route was led by veterans of that action. The walkers used Sacred staffs to represent their issues; the group supported the protection of sacred sites of indigenous peoples, traditional tribal sovereignty, issues related to native prisoners, and the protection of children. They also commemorated the 30th anniversary of the original Longest Walk.[17]

Southern Route[edit]
Walkers along the Southern Route picked up more than 8,000 bags of garbage on their way to Washington. In Washington, the Southern Route delivered a 30-page manifesto, "The Manifesto of Change", and a list of demands, including mitigation for climate change, a call for environmental sustainability plans, protection of sacred sites, and renewal of improvement to Native American sovereignty and health.[17]

With its provocative events and advocacy for Indian rights, AIM attracted scrutiny from the Department of Justice (DOJ).[18] The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) used paid informants to report on AIM's activities and its members.[19][20]

In February 1973, AIM leaders Russell Means and Dennis Banks worked with Oglala Lakota people and AIM activists to occupy the small Indian community of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, on the Pine Ridge Reservation. They were protesting its corrupt government, federal issues, and the lack of justice from border counties. The FBI dispatched agents and US Marshals to cordon off the site. Later a higher-ranking DOJ representative took control of the government's response. Through the resulting siege that lasted for 71 days, twelve people were wounded, including an FBI agent left paralyzed; in April a Cherokee and a Lakota activist died of gunfire (at this point, the Oglala Lakota called an end to the occupation). Afterward, 1200 American Indians were arrested. Wounded Knee drew international attention to the plight of American Indians. AIM leaders were tried in a Minnesota federal court. The court dismissed their case on the basis of governmental prosecutorial misconduct.[21]

AIM protests[edit]
AIM opposes national and collegiate sports teams using figures of indigenous people as mascots and team names, such as the Cleveland Indians, the Atlanta Braves, the Chicago Blackhawks, the Kansas City Chiefs and the Washington Redskins, and has organized protests at World Series and Super Bowl games against these teams. Protesters held signs with slogans such as "Indians are people not mascots". or "Being Indian is not a character you can play".[22]

Although sports teams had ignored such requests by individual tribes for years, AIM received attention in the mascot debate. NCAA schools such as Florida State University, University of Utah, University of Illinois and Central Michigan University have negotiated with the tribes whose names or images they had used for permission for continued use and to collaborate on portraying the mascot in a way that is intended to honor Native Americans.

Goals and commitments[edit]
AIM has been committed to improving conditions faced by native peoples. It founded institutions to address needs, including the Heart of The Earth School, Little Earth Housing, International Indian Treaty Council, AIM StreetMedics, American Indian Opportunities and Industrialization Center (one of the largest Indian job training programs), KILI radio and Indian Legal Rights Centers.[23]

In 1971, several members of AIM, including Dennis Banks and Russell Means, traveled to Mt. Rushmore. They converged at the mountain in order to protest the illegal seizure of the Sioux Nation's sacred Black Hills in 1877 by the United States federal government, in violation of its earlier 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. The protest began to publicize the issues of the American Indian Movement.[3] In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the federal government had illegally taken the Black Hills. The government offered financial compensation, but the Oglala Sioux have refused it, insisting on return of the land to their people. The settlement money is earning interest.[citation needed]

Border town cases[edit]
In 1972, Raymond Yellow Thunder, a 51-year-old Oglala Lakota from Pine Ridge Reservation, was murdered in Gordon, Nebraska, by two brothers, Leslie and Melvin Hare, younger white men. After their trial and conviction, the Hares received the minimal sentence for manslaughter. Members of AIM went to Gordon to protest the sentences, as it was seen as part of a pattern of law enforcement in border counties that did not provide justice to Native Americans.[24] In the winter of 1973, Wesley Bad Heart Bull, a Lakota, was stabbed to death at a bar in Buffalo Gap South Dakota by a white man name Darld Schmitz, who was charged with the lesser offense of second degree manslaughter. Darld Schmitz spent zero days in jail for the crime. The A.I.M. caravan was called to action by Dennis Banks, however, an alleged COINTELPRO actor informed the media that the event was cancelled and upon arrival, 200 A.I.M. members were met by militarized riot police. Custer County's prosecutor Hobart Gates refused to negotiate and members of A.I.M. were subsequently victimized by police brutality in the forms of tear gas and beaten with clubs. Wesley Bad Heart Bull's mother Sarah Bad Heart Bull was subsequently beaten by police and jailed for five months.

1973 Wounded Knee Incident[edit]
Main article: Wounded Knee Incident

In addition to the problems of violence in the border towns, many traditional people at the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation were unhappy with the government of Richard Wilson, elected in 1972. When their effort to impeach him in February 1973 failed, they met to plan protests and action. Many people on the reservation were unhappy about its longstanding poverty and failures of the federal government to live up to its treaties with Indian nations. The women elders encouraged the men to act. On February 27, 1973, about 300 Oglala Lakota and AIM activists went to the hamlet of Wounded Knee for their protest. It developed into a 71-day siege, with the FBI cordoning off the area by using US Marshals and later National Guard units.[3] The occupation was symbolically held at the site of the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre. The Oglala Lakota demanded a revival of treaty negotiations to begin to correct relations with the federal government, the respect of their sovereignty, and the removal of Wilson from office. The American Indians occupied the Sacred Heart Church, the Gildersleeve Trading Post and numerous homes of the village. On March 5th, tribal chairman Richard "Dick" Wilson stated, "AIM will die at Wounded Knee," and government officials began to warn AIM to remove women and children, followed by two nights of large amounts of gunfire from federal officials. Following twenty-thousand rounds fired on March 23rd, US Marshal, Lloyd Grimm was wounded severely and paralyzed allegedly by gunfire sustained by one of Richard Wilson's GOON squad members. On April 17 rounds fired by U.S. government officials killed an Apache tribal member named Frank Clearwater, who died on April 25. April, a Cherokee from North Carolina and a Lakota AIM member were shot and killed. Death toll for A.I.M. is two, however, multiple members of A.I.M. have disappeared, allegedly by the actions of the GOON squad. The elders ended the occupation then.[16]

The murder rate on Pine Ridge Reservation during a three year period between 1973 and 1976 was 170 per 100,000, where the national average at this time was 9.7 per 100,000. U.S. government officials arrested 562 A.I.M. members at Wounded Knee and 600 nationwide supporters.

For about a month afterward, journalists frequently interviewed Indian spokesmen and the event received international coverage. The Department of Justice then excluded the press from access to Wounded Knee. The Academy Awards ceremony was held in Hollywood, where the actor Marlon Brando, a supporter of AIM, asked an Apache actress, Sacheen Littlefeather, to speak at the Oscars on his behalf. He had been nominated for his performance in The Godfather and won. Littlefeather arrived in full Apache regalia and read his statement that, owing to the "poor treatment of Native Americans in the film industry," Brando would not accept the award. In interviews, she also talked about the Wounded Knee occupation. The event grabbed the attention of the US and the world media. The movement considered the Awards ceremony publicity, together with Wounded Knee, as a major event and public relations victory, as polls showed that Americans were sympathetic to the Indian cause.

Pine Ridge Reservation violence[edit]
AIM members continued to be active at Pine Ridge, although Wilson stayed in office and was re-elected in 1974 in a contested election. Violent deaths rose during a "reign of terror", and more than 300 political opponents of his died violently during the next three years.[citation needed] On June 26, 1975, two FBI agents Jack Coler and Ronald Williams were on the Pine Ridge Reservation searching for someone who was wanted for questioning relating to an assault and robbery of two ranch hands. The FBI agents were driving in two unmarked cars and followed a red pick-up truck matching the suspects description. The FBI agents were shot at by the occupants of the vehicle and others. The agents managed to fire five rounds before being killed, while at least 125 bullets were fired at them. The agents were also shot at close range with physical evidence suggesting that they had been executed. Later reinforcements arrived, and Joe Stuntz, an AIM member who had taken part in the shootout was fatally shot and was found wearing Coler's FBI jacket. Three AIM members were indicted for the murders: Darryl Butler, Robert Robideau and Leonard Peltier, who had escaped to Canada. An eyewitness testified that the three men joined the shooting after it had started. Both Butler and Robideau were acquitted at trial while Peltier was tried separately and controversially convicted in 1976 and is serving two consecutive life sentences. Amnesty International has referred to his case under its Unfair Trials category.[25][26][27][28]

Informants true and false[edit]
In late 1974, AIM leaders discovered that Douglas Durham, a prominent member who was by then head of security, was an FBI informant. They confronted him and expelled him from AIM at a press conference in March 1975. Durham's girlfriend, Jancita Eagle Deer, was later found dead after being struck by a speeding car while many believed Durham was guilty.[27] Durham was also scheduled to testify in front of the Church Committee, but that hearing was suspended due to the illegal invasion of Pine Ridge reservation and the subsequent shoot out.[27]

With some members in fugitive status after the Pine Ridge shootout, suspicions about FBI infiltration remained high. For various reasons, Anna Mae Aquash, the highest-ranking woman in AIM, was mistakenly suspected of being an informant, even after she had voiced suspicions about Durham. Aquash had also been threatened by FBI agent David Price[27][29] According to testimony at trials in 2004 and 2010 of men convicted of her murder, she was interrogated in the fall of 1975. In mid-December she was taken from Denver, Colorado, to Rapid City, South Dakota, and interrogated again, then taken to Rosebud Reservation and finally to a far corner of Pine Ridge Reservation, where she was killed by a gunshot wound to the back of the head. Her decomposing body was found February 1976. After the coroner failed to find the bullet hole in Aquash's head, the FBI severed both of her hands and sent them to Washington, D.C., allegedly for identification purposes, then buried her as a Jane Doe.[27] Aquash's body was later exhumed and given a second burial.

1980's support of Nicaraguan Miskito Indians[edit]
During the Sandinista/Indian conflict in Nicaragua of the mid-1980's, Russell Means sided with Miskito Indians opposing the Sandinista government. The Miskito charged the government with forcing relocations of as many as 8,500 Miskito. This position was controversial among other left-wing, indigenous rights groups and Central American solidarity organizations in the United States who opposed Contra activities and supported the Sandinista movement.[30][31] The complex situation included Contra insurgents' recruiting among Nicaraguan Indian groups, including some Miskitos. Means recognized the difference between opposition to the Sandinista government by the Miskito, Sumo, and Rama on one hand, and the Reagan administration's support of the Contras, dedicated to the overthrow of the Sandinista regime.[32]

AIM protests and contentions[edit]
Many AIM chapters remain committed to confronting government and corporate forces that they allege seek to marginalize Indigenous peoples.[33] They have challenged the ideological foundations of US national holidays, such as Columbus Day[34] and Thanksgiving. In 1970 AIM declared Thanksgiving a National Day of Mourning. This protest continues under the work of the United American Indians of New England, who protest continued theft of indigenous peoples' territories and natural resources.[35][36] AIM has helped educate people about the full history of the US, and advocates for the inclusion of Indigenous American perspectives in U.S. history. Its efforts are recognized and supported by many institutional leaders in politics, education, arts, religion, and media.[37]

Professor Ronald L. Grimes wrote that in 1984 "the Southwest chapter of the American Indian Movement held a leadership conference that passed a resolution labeling the expropriation of Indian ceremonies (for instance, the use of sweat lodges, vision quests, and sacred pipes) a "direct attack and theft". It also condemned certain named individuals (such as Brooke Medicine Eagle, Wallace Black Elk, and Sun Bear and his tribe) and criticized specific organizations such as Vision Quest, Inc. The declaration threatened to take care of those abusing sacred ceremonies.[38]

2000s[edit]
In June 2003, United States and Canadian tribes joined together internationally to pass the "Declaration of War Against Exploiters of Lakota Spirituality." They felt they were being exploited by those marketing the sales of replicated Native American spiritual objects and impersonating sacred religious ceremonies as a tourist attraction. AIM delegates are working on a policy to require tribal identification for anyone claiming to represent Native Americans in any public forum or venue.

In February 2004, AIM gained more media attention by marching from Washington, D.C. to Alcatraz Island. This was one of many occasions when Indian activists used the island as the location of an event since the Occupation of Alcatraz in 1969, led by the United Indians of All Tribes, a student group from San Francisco. The 2004 march was in support of Leonard Peltier, whom many believed had not had a fair trial; he has become a symbol of spiritual and political resistance for Native Americans.[39]

In December 2008, a delegation of Lakota Sioux, including Talon Becenti, delivered to the U.S. State Department a declaration of separation from the United States citing many broken treaties by the U.S. government in the past, and the loss of vast amounts of territory originally awarded in those treaties, the group announced its intentions to form a separate nation within the U.S. known as the Republic of Lakotah.[40]

AIM timeline[edit]

 * 1968 – Minneapolis AIM Patrol created to monitor police treatment of urban American Indians and their treatment in the justice system.
 * 1969 – Indian Health Board of Minneapolis founded. This was the first American Indian, urban-based health care provider in the nation.[citation needed] The San Francisco-based United Indians of All Tribes and the Alcatraz-Red Power Movement occupied Alcatraz Island, a former federal prison site, for 19 months. They reclaimed federal land in the name of Native Nations. The first American Indian radio broadcasts—Radio Free Alcatraz—were heard in the Bay Area. Some AIM activists joined them.
 * 1970 – Legal Rights Center created in Minneapolis to assist American Indians (as of 1994, over 19,000 clients have had legal representation thanks to AIM's work). [41] AIM takeover of abandoned property at the naval air station near Minneapolis focuses attention on Indian education and leads to early grants for Indian education.
 * 1971 – Citizen's arrest of John Old Crow. Takeover of the Bureau of Indian Affairs' headquarters in Washington, D.C. to publicize improper BIA policies. Twenty-four protesters arrested for trespassing and released. BIA Commissioner Louis Bruce shows his AIM membership card at the meeting held after the release of protesters. First National AIM Conference: 18 chapters of AIM convened to develop long-range strategy for the movement. Takeover of Winter Dam: AIM assists the Lac Court Oreilles (LCO) Ojibwe in Wisconsin in taking over a dam controlled by Northern States Power, which had flooded much of their reservation land. This action gained support by government officials and an eventual settlement with the LCO. The federal government returned more than 25,000 acres (100 km2) of land to the LCO tribe for their reservation, and the Power company provided significant monies and business opportunities to the tribe.
 * 1972 – Red School House, the second survival school to open, offering culturally based education services to K-12 students in St. Paul, Minnesota. Hearth of the Earth Survival School (HOTESS), a K-12 school established to address the extremely high drop-out rate among American Indian students and lack of curricula that reflected American Indian culture. HOTESS serves as the first model of community-based, student-centered education with culturally correct curriculum operating under parental control. Trail of Broken Treaties, a pan-Indian march across country to Washington, D.C. to dramatize failures in federal policy. Protesters occupied the BIA national headquarters and did millions of dollars in damages, as well as irrevocable losses of Indian land deeds. The protesters presented a 20-point demand paper to the administration, many associated with treaty rights and renewed negotiations of treaties.
 * 1973 – Legal action for school funds as in reaction to the Trail of Broken Treaties the government canceled education grants to three AIM-sponsored schools in St. Paul and Milwaukee. AIM files legal challenges, and the District Court orders the grants restored and government payment of costs and attorney fees. Wounded Knee: AIM was contacted by Oglala Lakota elders of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation for assistance in dealing with failures in justice in border towns, the authoritarian tribal president and financial corruption within the BIA and executive committee. Together with Oglala Lakota, armed activists occupied the town of Wounded Knee for 71-days against United States armed forces.
 * 1973 – On February 27, 1973, a large public meeting of 600 Indians at Calico Hall organized by Pedro Bissonette of Oglala Sioux Civil Rights Organization (OSCRO) and addressed by AIM leaders Banks and Russell Means. Demands were made for investigations into vigilante incidents and for hearings on their treaties and permission given by the tribal elders to make a stand at Wounded Knee.
 * 1974 – International Indian Treaty Council, an organization representing Indian peoples throughout the western hemisphere was recognized at the United Nations in Geneva, Switzerland. Wounded Knee trials: eight months of federal trials of participants in Wounded Knee took place in Minneapolis. It was the longest Federal trial in the history of the United States.[citation needed] As many instances of government misconduct were revealed, the District judge Fred Nichol dismissed all charges due to government "misconduct" which "formed a pattern throughout the course of the trial" so that "the waters of justice have been polluted". [42]
 * 1975 – Federation of Survival Schools created to provide advocacy and networking skills to 16 survival schools throughout the United States and Canada. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) chose AIM to be the primary sponsor of the first American Indian-run housing project, Little Earth of United Tribes.
 * 1977 – MIGIZI Communications founded in Minneapolis. The organization is dedicated to producing Indian news and information and educating students of all ages as tomorrow's technical work force. International Indian Treaty Council establishes non-government organization status at United Nations offices in Geneva; attends the International NGO conference and presents testimony to the United Nations. American Indian Language and Culture Legislation: AIM proposes legislative language which is passed in Minnesota, recognizing state responsibility for Indian education and culture. This legislation was recognized as a model throughout the country.[citation needed]
 * 1978 – The first education programs for American Indian offenders: AIM establishes the first adult education program for American Indian offenders at Stillwater Prison in Minnesota. [43] Programs later established at other state correctional facilities modeled after the Minnesota program.[citation needed] Circle of Life Survival School established on the White Earth Indian Reservation in Minnesota. The school receives funding for three years of operation from the Department of Education. Run for Survival: AIM youth organize and conduct 500-mile (800 km) run from Minneapolis to Lawrence, Kansas, to support The Longest Walk. The Longest Walk: Indian Nations walk across the United States from California to Washington, D.C. to protest proposed legislation calling for the abrogation of treaties with Indian nations. They set up and maintain a tipi near the White House. The proposed legislation is defeated.
 * 1979 – Little Earth housing protected: an attempt by the HUD to foreclose on the Little Earth of United Tribes housing project is halted by legal action and the District Court issues an injunction against the HUD. The American Indian Opportunities Industrialiazation Center (AIOIC) creates job-training schools to alleviate the unemployment issues of Indian people. More than 17,000 Native Americans have been trained for jobs since AIM created the AIOIC in 1979. Anishinabe Akeeng Organization is created to regain stolen and tax-forfeited land on the White Earth Reservation in Minnesota.
 * 1984 – Federation of Native Controlled Survival Schools presents legal education seminars at colleges and law schools in Minnesota, Wisconsin, California, South Dakota, Nebraska and Oklahoma for educators of Indian students. National conference held in San Jose, California, concurrent with the National Indian Education Association Convention.
 * 1986 – Schools lewsuit: Heart of the Earth and Red School House successfully sue the Department of Education Indian Education Programs for ranking the schools' programs below funding recommendation levels. The suit proved discriminatory bias in the system of ranking by the Department staff.
 * 1987 – AIM Patrol: Minneapolis AIM Patrol restarts to protect American Indian women in Minneapolis after serial killings committed against them.
 * 1988 – Elaine Stately Indian Youth Services (ESIYS) developed to create alternatives for youth in Minneapolis as a direct diversion to gang-involvement of Indian youth. Fort Snelling AIM annual Pow Wow: AIM establishes an annual pow-wow to recognize its 20th anniversary at Fort Snelling in Minnesota. The event becomes the largest Labor Day weekend event in any Minnesota state park.[citation needed]
 * 1989 – Spearfishing: AIM is requested to provide expertise in dealing with protesters at boat landings. American Indian spearfishing continues despite violence, arrests and threats from whites. Senator Daniel Inouye calls for a study on the effects of Indian spearfishing. The study shows only 6% of fish taken are by Indians. Sports fishing accounts for the rest.
 * 1991 – Peacemaker Center: AIM houses its AIM Patrol and ESIYS in a center in the heart of the Indian community, based on Indian spirituality. Sundance returned to Minnesota: with the support of the Dakota communities, AIM revives the Sundance at Pipestone, Minnesota. Ojibwe nations have helped make the Minnesota Sundance possible. The Pipestone Sundance becomes an annual event. In 1991, some self-appointed leaders of the Oglala Lakota, Cheyenne and other nations declare independence from the United States. The group establishes a provisional government to develop a separate national government. Elected leaders and council members of the nations do not support this action. National Coalition on Racism in Sports and Media: AIM organizes this group to address the issue of using Indian figures and names as sports team mascots. AIM leads a walk in Minneapolis to the 1992 Super Bowl. In 1994, the Minneapolis Star Tribune agrees to stop using professional sports team names that refer to Indian people unless these have been approved by the tribes.
 * 1992 – The Food Connection organizes summer youth jobs program with an organic garden and spiritual camp (Common Ground) at Tonkawood Farm in Orono, Minnesota.
 * 1993 – Expansion of American Andian OIC Job Training Program: the Grand Metropolitan, Inc. of Great Britain, a parent of the Pillsbury Corporation, merges its job training program with that of AIOIC and pledges future monies and support in Minnesota. Little Earth: after AIM's 18-year struggle, the HUD secretary Henry Cisneros rules that Little Earth of United Tribes housing project shall retain the right to preference for American Indian residents when considering applicants for the project. Wounded Knee anniversary: at the 20th anniversary of the Wounded Knee Incident at Pine Ridge Reservation, the elected Oglala Sioux Tribe president John Yellow Bird Steele thanked AIM for its 1973 actions.[citation needed]

Due to continuing dissension, AIM splits. AIM Grand Governing Council (AIMGGC) is based in Minneapolis and still led by founders while AIM-International Confederation of Autonomous Chapters is based in Denver, Colorado.


 * 1996 – April 3–8, 1996: as a representative of the AIM Grand Governing Council and special representative of the International Indian Treaty Council, Vernon Bellecourt, along with William A. Means, president of IITC, attends the preparatory meeting for the Intercontinental Encounter for Humanity and Against Neo-Liberalism (IEHN), hosted by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), held in LaRealidad, Eastern Chiapas, Mexico between July 27 and August 3, 1996. The second meeting for the IEHN in 1997 is hosted by the EZLN and attended by delegates of the IITC and AIM.
 * 1998 – February 12, 1998: AIM is charged with Security at the Ward Valley Occupation in Southern California. The occupation lasts for 113 days and results in a victory for the Colorado River Indian Tribes (CRIT) against the plan to use the area for the disposal of nuclear wastes. February 27, 1998: on the 25th anniversary of Wounded Knee, an Oglala Lakota Nation resolution establishes February 27 as a National Day of Liberation. July 16–19, 1998: the 25th annual Lac Courte Oreilles Honor the Earth Homecoming Celebration to honor the people who participated in the July 31, 1971 takeover of the Winter Dam and the beginning of the Honor the Earth observance. August 2–11, 1998: 30th Anniversary of the AIM Grand Governing Council and Sacred Pipestone Quarries in Pipestone, Minnesota. Conference commemorating AIM's 30th anniversary.
 * 1999 – February 1999: three United States activists working with a group of UÕwa Indians in Colombia are kidnapped by rebels. Ingrid Washinawatok, 41 (Menominee), a humanitarian; Terence Freitas, 24, an environmental scientist from Santa Cruz, California; and LaheÕenaÕe Gay, 39 of Hawaii, are seized near the village of Royota, in Arauca province in northeastern Colombia on February 25 while preparing to leave after a two-week on-site visit. On March 5, their bullet-riddled bodies are discovered across the border in Venezuela.
 * 2000 – July 2000: AIM 32nd anniversary Conference on the Lac Courte Oreilles Ojibwe Nation Reservation in northern Wisconsin. October 2000 – AIM founded commission to seek justice for Ingrid Washinawatok and companions.
 * 2001 – March 2001: Reps of the AIM GGC attend the EZLN March for Peace, Justice and Dignity, Zocolo Plaza in Mexico City. July 2001 – 11th annual Youth & Elders International Cultural Gathering and Sundance in Pipestone, Minnesota. August 2001: five anti-wahoo demonstrators with AIM bring civil lawsuit for false arrest against the city of Cleveland, Ohio. November 2001 – The American Indian Forum on Racism in Sports and Media is held at Black Bear Crossing in St. Paul, Minnesota.
 * 2002 – August 2002: 12th annual International Youth & Elders Cultural Gathering and Sundance in Pipestone, Minnesota.
 * 2003 – May 2003: Quarterly Meeting of the AIM National Board of Directors Thunderbird House in Winnipeg, Manitoba. August 2003 – 13th Annual International Youth & Elders Cultural Gathering and Sundance, Pipestone, Minnesota.
 * 2004 – August 2004: 14th annual International Youth & Elders Cultural Gathering and Sundance in Pipestone, Minnesota.
 * 2005 – May 2005: 1st annual Clyde H. Bellecourt Endowment Scholarship Fund and Awards Banquet in Minneapolis. July 2005 – 15th annual International Youth & Elders Cultural Gathering and Sundance, Pipestone, Minnesota.
 * 2006 – May 2006: 2nd annual Clyde H. Bellecourt Endowment Scholarship Fund and Awards Banquet in Minneapolis. July 2006 – 16th annual International Youth & Elders Cultural Gathering and Sundance, Pipestone, Minnesota.[44]

Other Native American organizations[edit]
The American Indian Movement founded several organizations since its establishment in 1968. Its focus on cultural renewal and employment has led to the creation of housing programs, the American Indian Opportunities and Industrialization Center (for job training), and AIM Street Medics, as well as a legal-aid center.[45] The American Opportunities and Industrialization Center, founded in 1979 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, has built a workforce of over 20,000 people from the entire Twin City area and tribal nations across the country and is a nationally recognized leader in the workforce development field.[46] Following the AIM’s all-inclusive practice,[47] AIOC resources are available to all regardless of race, creed, age, gender, or sexual orientation. The Tokama Institute, a division of the AIOIC, is focused on helping American Indians acquire the foundational skills and knowledge in order to obtain a successful career. Aside from post-secondary institutions, AIM has helped develop and establish its own K-12 schools including Heart of the Earth Survival School and the Little Red Schoolhouse both located in Minneapolis. Further, AIM has led to the establishment of Women of All Red Nations (WARN). Established in 1974, WARN has put women at the forefront of the organization and focused its energies in combating sexism, government sterilization policies, and other injustices.[48] Other Native American organizations include NATIVE (Native American Traditions, Ideals, Values Educational Society), LISN (League of Indigenous Sovereign Nations), EZLN (Zapatista Army of National Liberation), and the IPC (Indigenous Peoples Caucus).[39] Although each group may have its own specific goals or focus, they are all fighting for the same principles of respect and equality for Native Americans. The Northwest Territories Indian Brotherhood, the Committee of Original People's Entitlement were two organization that spearheaded the native rights movement in northern Canada during the 1960s.

International Indian Treaty Council[edit]
AIM established the International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) in June 1974. It invited representatives from numerous indigenous nations, and delegates from 98 international groups attended the meeting. The sacred pipe serves as a symbol of the Nations "common bonds of spirituality, ties to the land and respect for traditional cultures". The IITC focuses on issues such as treaty and land rights, rights and protection of indigenous children, protection of sacred sites, and religious freedom.

The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC) uses networking, technical assistance, and coalition building. In 1977, the IITC became a Non-Governmental Organization with Consultative Status to the United Nations Economic and Social Council. The organization concentrates on involving Indigenous Peoples in U.N. forums. In addition, the IITC strives to bring awareness about the issues concerning Indigenous Peoples to non-Indigenous organizations.[49]

United Nations adoption of indigenous peoples' rights[edit]
On September 13, 2007, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the "Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples". A total of 144 states or countries voted in favor. Four voted against it while 11 abstained. The four voting against it were the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, whose representatives said they believed the declaration "goes too far".[50]

The Declaration announces rights of indigenous peoples, such as rights to self-determination, traditional lands and territories, traditional languages and customs, natural resources and sacred sites.[50]

Ideological differences within AIM[edit]
Main article: American Indian Movement of Colorado

In 1993, AIM split into two factions, each claiming to be the authentic inheritor of the AIM tradition. The AIM-Grand Governing Council is based in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and associated with leadership by Clyde Bellecourt and his brother Vernon Bellecourt (who died in 2007). The GGC tends toward a more centralized, controlled political philosophy.

The AIM-International Confederation of Autonomous Chapters, based in Denver, Colorado, was founded by thirteen AIM chapters in 1993 at a meeting in Denver, Colorado. The group issued its Edgewood Declaration, citing organizational grievances and complaining of authoritarian leadership by the Bellecourts. Ideological differences were growing, with the AIM-International Confederation of Autonomous Chapters taking a spiritual, perhaps more mainstream, approach to activism. The autonomous chapters group argues that AIM has always been organized as a series of decentralized, autonomous chapters, with local leadership accountable to local constituencies. The autonomous chapters reject the assertions of central control by the Minneapolis group as contrary both to indigenous political traditions and to the original philosophy of AIM.[51]

Accusations of murder[edit]
At a press conference in Denver, Colorado on 3 November 1999, Russell Means accused Vernon Bellecourt of having ordered the execution of Anna Mae Aquash in 1975. The "highest-ranking" woman in AIM at the time, she had been shot execution style in mid-December 1975 and left in a far corner of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation after having been kidnapped from Denver, Colorado and interrogated in Rapid City, South Dakota, as a possible FBI informant. Means implicated Clyde Bellecourt in her murder as well, and other AIM activists, including Theresa Rios. Means said that part of the dissension within AIM in the early 1990s had related to actions to expel the Bellecourt brothers for their part in the Aquash execution; the organization split apart.[52]

Earlier that day in a telephone interview with the journalists Paul DeMain and Harlan McKosato about the upcoming press conference, Minnie Two Shoes had said, speaking of the importance of Aquash:"Part of why she was so important is because she was very symbolic, she was a hard working woman, she dedicated her life to the movement, to righting all the injustices that she could, and to pick somebody out and launch their little cointelpro program on her to bad jacket her to the point where she ends up dead, whoever did it, let's look at what the reasons are, you know, she was killed and lets look at the real reasons why it could have been any of us, it could have been me, it could have been, ya gotta look at the basically thousands of women, you gotta remember that it was mostly women in AIM, it could have been any one of us and I think that's why it's been so important and she was just such a good person.[53]"McKosato said that "her [Aquash's] death has divided the American Indian Movement".[53] On 4 November 1999, in a follow-up show on Native American Calling the next day, Vernon Bellecourt denied any involvement by him and his brother in the death of Aquash.[54]

At Federal grand jury hearings in 2003, the Indian men Arlo Looking Cloud and John Graham were indicted for shooting Aquash in December 1975. In February '04, Arlo Looking Cloud was convicted of murder in Rapid City. He named as the gunman John Graham, who was in the Yukon. After extradition, John Graham was convicted, in 2010 in Rapid City, of the murder. In both trials, hearsay testimony about the motive for the murder included statements that Aquash heard Leonard Peltier say he killed the FBI agents at Oglala in June 1975, and fear that Aquash could be working with the FBI. Peltier was convicted in 1976 of murder for the Oglala killings, on other evidence.

