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Food authenticity

1.      Definition

 The authenticity of a foodstuff is the result of its history from the origin (genetic background) to the final step when it is ready to be consumed. During this history different factors in a different manner influence its metabolite composition leaving an imprint at the molecular level. (Sobolev A, 2017)

 Food authentication is the process that verifies that a food is in compliance with its label description. This may include, among others, the origin (species, geographical or genetic), production method (conventional, organic, traditional procedures, free range), or processing technologies (irradiation, freezing, microwave heating). (Danezis G. P., 2016)

2.       Terminology

 Process  is a set of interrelated or interacting activities which transforms inputs to outputs.

 Product  is an output that is a result of a process. It can be an intermediate, material, semi-finished or final product.

 (Food product) characteristic  is a distinguishing feature of the (food) product. A product characteristic can be qualitative or quantitative. A product characteristic can be inherent in the product itself, or it can relate to the conditions under which the product was produced, or the environment it was produced in. A product characteristic is sometimes referred to as a product attribute or a product property. There are various classes of product characteristics, such as the following:

a)       physical (e.g. mechanical, electrical, chemical or biological characteristics)

b)       sensory (e.g. related to smell, touch or taste)

c)       functional (e.g. medicinal quality of a food product)

<span lang=EN-US>d)       related to origin (e.g. raw material used, identity of primary processor)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>e)       related to processing or production method (e.g. mildly processed, cooked at low temperature, halal production, kosher production)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='text-indent:-18.0pt'> f)<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>        related to standards, defined practices, certification schemes or regulations (e.g. produced according to some specification). This characteristic is normally connected to other specified product characteristics that must be present or absent or have some particular value.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><b> (Food product) claim </b> is a statement where a (food) product is said to have a certain characteristic.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:35.4pt'> The claim can be explicit, e.g. on the label or in the accompanying documentation, or it can be implicit, in that if the food product had the characteristic in question, it should have been stated explicitly. A product claim is sometimes referred to as a product description.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%'>Legislation will often specify mandatory information to be provided for a given type of food product; this information is normally presented as claims in relation to certain characteristics, and these claims may be true or false.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%'>Many food producers provide additional information about the food product, beyond what is required in the legislation; this information is also normally presented as claims in relation to certain characteristics, and these claims may be true or false

<p class=MsoNormal> Authentic (food product) <span lang=EN-US>is a <span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height: 150%'> food product where there is a match between the actual food product characteristics and the corresponding food product claims; when the food product actually is what the claim says that it is. This is a state of being; either a food product is authentic, or there is a mismatch between some characteristics and the corresponding claims, and the product is not authentic.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><b> (Food product) authenticity </b> is the quality of being authentic; the degree to which there is a match between the actual food product characteristic and the corresponding food product claim.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><b> (Food product) authentication </b> is the process of verifying the correctness of the match between the food product characteristic and the corresponding claim; the process of verifying the authenticity of the food product.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><b> Analytical methods for (food product) authentication </b> are Methods and procedures for investigating the veracity, consistency or likelihood of claims, based on the determination of chemical food product characteristics. See chapter Analytical strategies for food authenticity determination.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><b> Record-based methods for (food product) authentication </b> are methods and procedures for investigating the veracity, consistency or likelihood of claims, based on recordings made in the supply chain for the food product in question.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> These methods largely focus on identifying discrepancies in recorded data; on identifying sets of claims that are mutually contradictory.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> The record-based methods for food product authentication can be applied on aggregate level, e.g. for countries, regions, or industry sectors, or they can be applied in specific supply chains or companies. When applied in specific supply chains or companies, the claims are normally extracted from the traceability system.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> A common record-based method for food product authentication is material flow analysis / mass-balance accounting, which is based on the mass balance principle; that matter is conserved in any system, and thus input is equal to output mass. Another common record-based method for food product authentication is input-output analysis, where claims relating to transactions between trading partners are examined for consistency (if A claimed that 1000 kg of a product was sent to B then there should be a corresponding claim at B stating that 1000 kg of the same product was received from A).

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><b> (Food product) misdescription </b> is a mismatch between the actual food product characteristic and the corresponding food product claim. Food product misdescription can be deliberate or accidental

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> Misdescription on the label of a food product is often referred to as mislabelling, but the term mislabelling is also used to refer to when the label is not in accordance with relevant requirements or regulations. If the consumer product was a cod fillet and label just said “fish”, that would not be a misdescription, but it would most likely be a violation of the labelling requirements that normally require the species to be explicitly specified on commercial labels.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> Common types of misdescription or mislabelling include:

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When the stated geographical origin, species, or method of production or storage does not match the actual product characteristic

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When processes that should have been declared (e.g. irradiation, freezing) were used when making the product, and not declared

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When the stated production date does not match the actual production date

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When the stated best before date, use by date, or expiration date does not match the respective dates calculated by the producer, using their normal methods

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When the stated ingredient is not the actual ingredient

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When the amounts stated for the ingredients do not correspond to the actual ingredient amounts used

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When ingredients or adulterants that should have been declared (e.g. water, starch) were added to the product, but not declared

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.55pt'><a><b> Food fraud </b></a> <span style='font-size:8.0pt;line-height:150%'><a class=msocomanchor id="_anchor_1" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_1','_com_1')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_1')" href="#_msocom_1" language=JavaScript name="_msoanchor_1">[HK1]</a> is <span lang=EN-US> intentionally causing a mismatch between food product claims and actual food product characteristics, either by deliberately making claims known to be false or by deliberately omitting to make claims that should have been made. Financial gain is the most common motivation for food fraud.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.55pt'> An implicit claim for all commercial products is ‘this product produced and sold according to the relevant requirements and regulations’, and this means that food fraud occurs when some aspect of the production violates the requirements or regulations; not only when an explicit claim is falsified. Examples of this type of food fraud include:

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When there are production agreements or quotas for the product, and the product in question is deliberately produced in excess of these; a fish product originating from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing is an example of this

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When there is a geographical restriction on the sale and distribution of the product, and the product in question is deliberately sold or distributed in other areas; this is often referred to as “grey market” sales

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When a legitimate product is stolen and passed off as a legitimately procured product

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:54.0pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· When an Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) infringement is in effect; this could include any or all aspects of the another product or packaging being fully replicated; this includes counterfeiting of brand name and packaging, a not uncommon type of fraud in the spirits and drinks industry

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.55pt'><b> Adulteration (in the context of food fraud) </b> is a type of food fraud which includes the intentional addition of a foreign or inferior substance or element; especially to prepare for sale by replacing more valuable with less valuable or inert ingredients. Economic gain is the most common reason for adulteration, and this practice is referred to as Economically Motivated Adulteration (EMA) of food products.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.55pt'><b> Substitution (in the context of food fraud) </b> is the process of replacing a nutrient, an ingredient or part of a food (often one with high value), with another nutrient, ingredient or part of food (often one with lower value).Substituting low value fish species for how value fish species when selling processed products (fillets, fish pies, etc.) is an example of this. Substitution is a type of food product adulteration

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.55pt'><b> Dilution (in the context of food fraud) </b> is the process of increasing the quantities of an inactive or already-present substance with the purpose of increasing weight or volume and thereby price. Adding / injecting unnecessary water into meat, poultry, or fish products to increase weight is an example of this. Dilution is a type of food product adulteration

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.55pt'> Unapproved enhancement (in the context of food fraud) is the process of adding unknown and undeclared compounds to food products in order to enhance their quality attributes. Adding melamine to milk powder to enhance protein content is an example of this. Unapproved enhancement is a type of food product adulteration

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.55pt'><b> Concealment (in the context of food fraud) </b> is the process of hiding the low quality of food ingredients or products. Injecting poultry with hormones to conceal disease is an example of this. Concealment is a type of food product adulteration <p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US (Zdroj CEN WS 86 – Authenticity in the feed and the food chain)

3.      Geographical indications and traditional specialties

<p class=MsoNormal> Three quality logos attest to the specific traditions and qualities of food, agricultural products and wines, aromatised wines and spirit drinks, produced in the European Union or in other countries. Two of these logos - the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and the Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) - have a specific link to the region where the product comes from, while the third one - the Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) - logo highlights a traditional production process. Food products are eligible for all three logos: PDO, PGI and TSG. Wine is eligible for PDO and PGI while spirit drinks and aromatised wines qualified for PGI recognition. (https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/quality/schemes_en)

4.      Organizations dealing with the issue of food authenticity

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>a)       Food Fraud Initiative is an interdisciplinary research, education, and outreach organization, which focus on all types of fraud that can contribute to public health and economic vulnerabilities and threats. These include adulteration, misbranding, tampering, overruns or licensee fraud, theft, diversion, simulation, and counterfeiting. ( <a href="http://foodfraud.msu.edu/about/"> http://foodfraud.msu.edu/about/ </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>b)       SSAFE is a non-profit membership driven organization that aims to foster the continuous improvement and global acceptance of internationally recognized food protection systems and standards through public private partnerships. SSAFE is focused on driving collaboration between the public and private sector to enhance the integrity of the food supply chain. (http://www.ssafe-food.org/)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>c)       Global Food Safety Initiative (GFSI) is an industry-driven initiative gathering world’s leading food safety experts, and it provides leadership and guidance on food safety management systems. The GFSI community works on a volunteer basis and is composed of the world's leading food safety experts from retail, manufacturing and food service companies, as well as international organizations, governments, academia and service providers to the global food industry. ( <a href="https://www.mygfsi.com/"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.mygfsi.com/ </a> )

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>d)       Europol is the European Union’s law enforcement agency. Headquartered in The Hague, the Netherlands, Europol supports the 28 EU Member States in their fight against terrorism, cybercrime and other serious and organized forms of crime. It also works with many non-EU partner states and international organizations. ( <a href="https://www.europol.europa.eu/"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.europol.europa.eu/ </a> )

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>e)       Food Authenticity Network is a Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) initiative to help bring together those involved in food authenticity testing. The network aims to raise awareness of the tools available to check for mislabelling and food fraud and to ensure that the UK has access to a resilient network of laboratories providing fit for purpose testing to check for food authenticity so consumers can have confidence in the food they buy. ( <a href="http://www.foodauthenticity.uk/about-us"> http://www.foodauthenticity.uk/about-us </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><a><span lang=EN-US>f)        European Commission Knowledge Centre for Food Fraud and Authenticity </a> <span style='font-size:8.0pt;line-height:150%'><a class=msocomanchor id="_anchor_2" onmouseover="msoCommentShow('_anchor_2','_com_2')" onmouseout="msoCommentHide('_com_2')" href="#_msocom_2" language=JavaScript name="_msoanchor_2">[HK2]</a>

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='text-indent:0cm'> The JRC has launched a monthly summary of articles on food fraud and adulteration, with the objective of informing stakeholders of potential fraud cases in the global feed/food chain, giving them the opportunity for taking actions to counter fraud. The summary presents articles from media globally, retrieved from the Medical Information System (MedISys), the JRC-developed internet monitoring and analysis system, based on the Europe Media Monitor. The second source is the Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF). ( <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/new-monthly-report-food-fraud-and-authenticity"><span lang=EN-US>https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/new-monthly-report-food-fraud-and-authenticity </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='text-indent:0cm'> Obecný odkaz: <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/research-topic/food-authenticity-and-quality"><span lang=EN-US>https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/research-topic/food-authenticity-and-quality </a>

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='text-indent:0cm'> Odkazy na jednotlivé monthly summary: <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/new-monthly-report-food-fraud-and-authenticity"><span lang=EN-US>https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/new-monthly-report-food-fraud-and-authenticity </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Other organizations fighting organized forms of crimes including food fraud are Interpol, Europol and OLAF

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:0cm'><span lang=EN-US>Odkazy oficiální:

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:0cm'><a href="https://www.interpol.int/">https://www.interpol.int/</a>

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:0cm'><a href="https://www.europol.europa.eu/"> https://www.europol.europa.eu/ </a>

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:39.3pt;text-indent:0cm'><a href="https://ec.europa.eu/anti-fraud/home_en"> https://ec.europa.eu/anti-fraud//home_en </a>

5.      Analytical strategies for food authenticity determination

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> (Danezis G. P., 2016, Abbas O., 2018, kniha Modern techniques for food authentication)

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> Authentication of food products involves procedures capable of verifying that the product matches the label statements and that it conforms to the provisions of applicable laws and regulations. To obtain results that allow for a reliable judgment, food authentication employs different analytical techniques. Nowadays, the most important techniques used for food authentication are the following:

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'><b> 5.1 Molecular techniques, genomics – proteomics </b>

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> Since 1980s, molecular technologies for species identification has been introduced and regarded as a breakthrough in authentication. Molecular analysis (genomic and proteomic techniques) is commonly used not only for discrimination of original (authentic) food products from non-original, which is the major authentication methodology, but also for other purposes, like variety of plant or species of animal based products classification, GMO analysis etc.. Nucleotide- and protein-based methods for food authentication are mostly used for species detection and identification. Since DNA is identical in all somatic cells of a given organism, it is invariant whether the DNA is extracted from leaves, roots, seeds or fruits (in case of plant), or from blood, muscle, liver or any other tissue (in case of animal). High stability of DNA allows the analysis of highly processed food products, as well as trace contaminants. The use of DNA-based markers in molecular authentication allows accurate and sensitive results (since the amount of required material can be as small as a few cells) to be produced regardless of age, physiological condition and tissue type of samples. Various molecular technologies for food authentication have been developed and reviewed.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> These technologies utilize the DNA polymorphism between species and are majorly classified into three types: (1) polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques, (2) hybridization-based techniques and (3) sequencing-based techniques such as DNA barcoding to analyze short standard DNA sequences and Forensically Informative Nucleotide Sequencing (FINS).

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:18.0pt'> DNA analysis belongs to “genomics”, because the whole genome of the sample is used. On the other hand, proteins can act as markers for many properties of the food products all along the food chain from farm to fork, and therefore proteomics can be applied for a systematic search of new marker proteins or peptides. The advantage of genomics is that it can amplify minute traces of nucleotide material, while proteomics identifies specific products encoded by DNA.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: <span style='line-height:150%'>LO, Yat-Tung; SHAW, Pang-Chui. DNA-based techniques for authentication of processed food and food supplements. Food chemistry, 2018, 240: 767-774.

<p class=MsoNormal>         DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal> 5.2 Chromatographic techniques 

<p class=MsoNormal> Chromatography is a technique used for the separation of a mixture into individual constituent components. This technique was first coined by a Russian botanist, Mikhail Tswett, in 1903 when he separated plant pigments such as chlorophylls and xanthophylls by passing their solution through a glass column packed with finely divided calcium carbonate. His discovery was considered leading to an explosive emergence of various modalities of chromatography. The complex mixtures are separated due to the difference in their time taken for each component to travel through a system that contains an immiscible bed of material or stationary phase and mobile phase. The mobile phase transports analyte while the stationary phase is immobile. There are different types of chromatography and these are classified based on the physical state of the mobile phase, such as gas chromatography (GC) for systems with gas mobile phase while liquid mobile phase is forms a part of liquid chromatography (LC). Due to the versatile applications of these techniques, fingerprints in the form of chromatograms are now widely used in the analysis of complex compounds such as coffee, tea, herbs and others for quality control including authentication processes and efficacy and safety evaluation. However, among the different types of chromatography fingerprint that exist, the high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is undoubtedly one of the most popular and widely used chromatographic techniques for the food analysis. Qualitatively, HPLC provides information about the presence of compounds and quantitatively the actual amount of that compound present in analyzed sample. High reproducibility, sensitivity, selectivity, and the ability to analyze a number of constituents in foods are among the great advantages of using HPLC techniques. However, for effective HPLC operation and to achieve the desired objective, certain important factors have to be taken into consideration starting from sample preparation to the final analysis.

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: <span lang=EN-US>MOHAMMED ABUBAKAR, Bashir, et al. DNA barcoding and chromatography fingerprints for the authentication of botanicals in herbal medicinal products. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2017, 2017.

<p class=MsoNormal> Chromatographic analysis provides rapid and reliable separation of chemically similar compounds in complex food matrices. In food authentication, chromatographic techniques must overcome several challenges inherent to food matrices. Food substrates consist of a great number of compounds, including peptides, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, fatty acids, organic acids, nucleic acids, phytochemicals and other small molecule (additives, such as colorants, aromas, preservatives and other exogenous compounds). These compounds are chemically diverse, ranging from the small organic molecules (usually up to 1000&#8201;Da) to macromolecules (biopolymers), that can possess a wide range of polarities – some are apolar (like triacylglycerols) while some others are strongly polar (like amino acids or sugars). Chromatographic methods produce unique chemical fingerprints that differentiate and authenticate foods. The authentication is based, on identification of minimal analytical differences between patterns or identification of unique marker compounds.

<p class=MsoNormal> Due to the chemical complexity of foodstuffs and high consumer demand for food quality and genuineness, high-resolution chromatographic techniques, such as gas (GC) or liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to one of the conventional detectors or to mass spectrometry (MS), have emerged as useful food authentication tools.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:14.2pt;line-height:140%;text-autospace: none'> In the recent decades, chromatography has become the dominating technique in food analysis, as shown in Figure 1 below, gas chromatography employing various conventional detectors was complemented in 1970s by liquid chromatography mostly relying on ultraviolet (UV) or fluorescence detector (FLD). In 1980s, mass spectrometric detectors have become successfully the gold standard in chromatographic instrumental platforms.

<p class=MsoNormal style='line-height:140%;text-autospace:none'><span lang=EN-GB>Zdroj: DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center;line-height:140%; text-autospace:none'><img border=0 width=304 height=186 id="Obrázek 23" src="Authent-Net_Wiki_v1_soubory/image001.png">

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-bottom:6.0pt;line-height:140%;text-autospace: none'>''' Figure 1. ''' Trend of analytical techniques in food analysis from the time perspective (years 1960–2017).

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> 5.3 Isotopic techniques 

<p class=MsoNormal> Isotopes are atoms of the same element that differ by the mass from each other. Stable isotopes are separated into two groups by atomic mass, light (bio-elements) and heavy isotopes. In the light isotope group, the ratios mostly investigated are 2H/1H, 13C/12C, 15N/14N, and 18O/16O, whereas 34S/32S is less commonly used. In heavy isotopes group, most commonly used ratio in food authentication is 87Sr/86Sr and more rarely 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb, 208Pb/204Pb, 143Nd/144Nd [15].

<p class=MsoNormal> The analysis of isotopic ratios uses various methods such as Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS), Multi Collector – Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS), and Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TIMS). IRMS interfaced with Elemental Analyser, Pyroliser, Equilibration devices, GC or HPLC is used for the determination of light isotopes ratios, while heavy isotopes are measured by MC-ICP-MS and TIMS.

<p class=MsoNormal> The isotopic ratios are applicable to food authentication because stable isotope ratios change with the climatic conditions, geographical origin, soil pedology, and geology of the locations of food ingredients origin. As a primary indication, H and O isotopic data for organic matter in food are linked to the H and O isotope data of water from the source region which have geographical variability, N and C isotopes are related to the climate and the agricultural practices, and S isotopes are affected by geology, volcanism, distance from the sea, and certain anthropogenic effects.

<p class=MsoNormal> Furthermore, the isotopic fingerprinting can be combined with other indicators (e.g., elemental analysis, NMR and GC) to improve the determination of the origin of a variety of food products.

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy Wiki:              Isotope: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        IRMS: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope-ratio_mass_spectrometry"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope-ratio_mass_spectrometry </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        ICP-MS: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        TIMS: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometry"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_ionization_mass_spectrometry </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal><b> 5.4 Vibrational &amp; fluorescence spectroscopy </b>

<p class=MsoNormal> Because of its ability to serve as a “fingerprint technique”, Infrared radiation (IR) spectroscopy can be taken into account as an ideal instrumental method for the authenticity studies of food Spectroscopy, in particular vibrational spectroscopy, is a fast and inexpensive method for both the assessment of food quality and food authenticity. In IR region, solid, liquid or gaseous samples can absorb some of the incoming infrared radiation at specific frequencies producing a spectral ‘fingerprint’ of the sample. The mid-infrared (MIR) fingerprints result from fundamental stretching, bending and rotating vibrations of the molecules, whilst near-infrared (NIR) spectra result from complex overtone and high frequency combinations at the shorter wavelengths. Analytical techniques deploy Fourier Transform to – Infrared (FT-IR).

<p class=MsoNormal> Raman spectroscopy, another emerging methodology, is based on fundamental vibration modes that can be assigned to specific chemical functional groups within a sample molecule and therefore can provide useful information for sample fingerprinting. Qualitative identification is mostly done because of high detection limits featured by vibrational techniques, mostly Raman. Analytical techniques deploy Fourier Transform also in case of Raman (FT-Raman) fluorescence like FT-IR. A major advantage of IR and Raman techniques is the rapid, non-destructive analysis of samples. Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS), in contrast to Raman spectroscopy, provides low detection limits for certain specific molecules, allowing applications to food adulterants determination.

<p class=MsoNormal> Fluorescence spectroscopy is a simple, non-destructive, non-invasive and relatively inexpensive analytical technique. It features low to very low detection limits as compared to other spectroscopic techniques. Molecules detected by fluorescence spectroscopy are polyaromatic hydrocarbons and heterocycles with rigid molecular skeletons. Recently, simple accurate and low cost fluorometers combined with advanced analytical software, gave the opportunity for fast, reliable, repeatable measurements and elaboration of the spectra. Hence, many fluorometric methods have been developed to check the authenticity, adulteration, quality and composition of foods.

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: ROHMAN, Abdul; MAN, Yaakob B. Che. Application of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy combined with chemometrics for authentication of cod-liver oil. Vibrational Spectroscopy, 2011, 55.2: 141-145.

<p class=MsoNormal>         DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy Wiki:              IR: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Fourier transform: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Raman spectroscopy: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy </a><span lang=EN-US>                                        SERS: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Fluorescence spectroscopy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence_spectroscopy

<p class=MsoNormal> 5.5 Elemental techniques 

<p class=MsoNormal> Elemental profiling is increasingly applied to assessment of food authenticity. Elemental profile refers to minerals: macro-elements (such as sodium, calcium and potassium), trace elements (such as copper, zinc and selenium), rare earth elements (such as lanthanum, cerium and samarium), or other elements occurring only at very low abundance (such as iridium and gold). The elemental fingerprint of foods is measured by a variety of analytical techniques. Even though Atomic Absorption techniques have been used in the past, nowadays Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS) and Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES) are almost exclusively used due to their ability for multi-element measurements [2,9,19].

<p class=MsoNormal> Zddroj:          DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy Wiki:              ICP-MS: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry </a><span lang=EN-US>                                            ICP-AES: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_atomic_emission_spectroscopy

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Mineral: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)

<p class=MsoNormal> 5.6 Nuclear magnetic resonance 

<p class=MsoNormal> Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has been established as a robust, high-throughput and reproducible screening platform able to monitor the factors responsible for the perturbation on the level of metabolites in address issues related to adulteration and authenticity in food items. NMR is one of the most suitable methods to obtain “high-throughput” spectroscopic and structural information on a wide range of molecular compounds. It enables determination of complex compositional matrices of foodstuffs, with high analytical precision. The amount of any selected metabolite in a mixture can be assessed with minimal sample preparation. In past, sensitivity of NMR was considered as a main limitation, but continuous developments in hardware resulted in high sensitivity of NMR. Therefore, &#925;&#924;R enables a collection of comprehensive metabolic profiles that can be used for food authentication. Site-Specific Natural Isotopic Fractionation (SNIF-NMR), enables robust fingerprinting of natural molecules. Profiling methods such as non-targeted 1H-NMR analysis have been applied for assessing geographical provenance of food. <span lang=EN-GB>The amplitude of NMR based metabolomics (global or targeted) for example in the vine/wine sector has been thoroughly reviewed  through the presentation of the latest research accomplishments on berry, must, wine, vinegar, and grape marc spirits, as well as the latest trends in metabolic profiling/fingerprinting. NMR-metabolomics has also proved a useful tool for characterizing protected designation of origin (PDO) wines.

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj:            HONG, Eunyoung, et al. Modern analytical methods for the detection of food fraud and adulteration by food category. <i>Journal of the science of food and agriculture</i>, 2017.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.85pt;text-indent:35.4pt'>DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy Wiki:              NMR: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        SNIF-NMR: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopic_analysis_by_nuclear_magnetic_resonance"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopic_analysis_by_nuclear_magnetic_resonance </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> 5.7 Sensory analysis 

<p class=MsoNormal> Sensory analysis has become important in many food sectors. Traditionally reliable results in sensory analysis require a well-trained panel of human assessors. Organoleptic test panels comprise a set of techniques for accurate measurements of human responses to foods. Appearance, aroma, flavor and texture properties are important characteristics determining the quality-authenticity of food products. These panels require extensive training of judges, adequate replication and detailed statistical analysis of the observations. In all cases, the response obtained has to be properly evaluated because the sensory evaluation varies both among panelists – they are individuals with different sensitivities, preferences, and product knowledge. Assessment may change within a given panelist with time – depending on his fatigue, stress, health, and other factors. Therefore, panelists are required to have a reasonable level of sensory perception, commitment and motivation but they should also be trained in the use of standardized and systematic sensory methods to get reliable results.

<p class=MsoNormal> Instrumental test of food quality using perception sensors instead of human panel test is attracting massive attention recently. Novel cross-perception multi-sensors data fusion imitating multiple human perceptions has been proposed. Amongst the techniques, there is a clear need to refer to Gas Chromatography Olfactometry (GCO), biomimetic sensors: electronic tongue (e-tongue), electronic nose, (e-nose), electronic eye, (e-eye). The “e-nose” uses detection of the volatile compounds present in the headspace of a food sample by an array of semi-selective gas sensors.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.85pt;text-indent:0cm'><span lang=EN-US>Zdroj:            DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy Wiki:              Sensory analysis: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_analysis"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_analysis </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Biomimetics: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomimetics"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomimetics </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Olfactometer: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactometer"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactometer </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        e-tongue: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_tongue"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_tongue </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        e-nose: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_nose"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_nose </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal><b> 5.8 Non chromatographic mass spectrometry </b>

<p class=MsoNormal> Another noticeable class of methodologies that should be mentioned is non chromatographic mass spectrometry techniques. Recent MS applications include the use of stand-alone techniques for elemental or molecular profiling and imaging. Among more efficient methods for food authentication are Proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS) and Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry(MALDI-TOF-MS), which is usually used for proteomic analysis.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:14.2pt;line-height:140%;text-autospace: none'> Mass spectrometry<span style='color:#131313'> has recently undergone a second contemporary revolution with the introduction of a new group of desorption/ionization (DI) techniques known collectively as ambient mass spectrometry. Performed in an open atmosphere directly on samples in their natural environments or matrices, or by using auxiliary surfaces, ambient mass spectrometry (AMS) has greatly simplified and increased the speed of MS analysis. Since its debut in 2004 there has been explosive growth in the applications and variants of ambient MS, and a very comprehensive set of techniques based on different desorption and ionization mechanisms is now available.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:14.2pt;line-height:140%;text-autospace: none'> The rapid AMS screening and identification techniques, dealing with a large number of compounds in complex matrices, play an important role in drug discovery, doping control, forensic identification, food safety and food quality control, and last but not least in food authentication and food fraud detection. The ambient ionization methods retain the signature advantages of MS speed, chemical specificity, low detection limits, and, via the MS/MS experiment, applicability to complex mixtures. However, these characteristics are now implemented in a direct experiment that requires minimal sample preparation, which is one of the biggest advantages of AMS.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:14.2pt;line-height:140%;text-autospace: none'> Two recent advancements in ambient ionization mass spectrometry, namely desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) and direct analysis in real time (DART), have been largely responsible for the rapid growth of this field over the last more than ten years and the proliferation of more than thirty new techniques in that time, often combining separate desorption and ionization processes in a single method.

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroje:          <span lang=EN-GB style='color:black'>Alberici, R. M., Simas, R. C., Sanvido, G. B., Rom&atilde;o, W., Lalli, P. M., Benassi, M., Cunha, I.B.S., Eberlin, M. N. Ambient mass spectrometry: bringing MS into the “real world”. <i>Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry </i>2010, 398, 265-294.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.85pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='color:black'>Cody, R. B., McAlpin, C. R., Cox, C. R., Jensen, K. R., Voorhees, K. J. Identification of bacteria by fatty acid profiling with direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry. <i>Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry </i>2015, 29, 2007-2012.

<p class=MsoNormal>DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.85pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='color:black'>Takats, Z.; Wiseman, J.M.; Gologan, B.; Cooks, R.G Mass spectrometry sampling under ambient conditions with desorption electrospray ionization. Science 2004, 306, 471–473

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:17.85pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='color:black'>Weston, D. J. Ambient ionization mass spectrometry: current understanding of mechanistic theory; analytical performance and application areas. Analyst 2010, 135, 661-668.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:14.2pt;line-height:140%;text-autospace: none'>

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy Wiki:              PTR-MS: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton-transfer-reaction_mass_spectrometry"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton-transfer-reaction_mass_spectrometry </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        MALDI: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Ambient Ionization: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_ionization"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_ionization </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        DART: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DART_ion_source

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:70.8pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-US>DESI: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desorption_electrospray_ionization"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desorption_electrospray_ionization </a>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:70.8pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-US>

<p class=MsoNormal> 5.9 Immunological techniques 

<p class=MsoNormal> Immunoassays are analytical tools that rely on the specific interaction between antibodies and their cognate antigens. They were originally developed to facilitate the study of immunology but are now finding widespread applications in many other fields as they can be used to detect a host of molecules, ranging from proteins to small organic molecules in a complex sample matrix present in foodstuffs. Immunoassays became popular tools for verifying identity standards of various types of food and food ingredients because they are fast, sensitive, highly specific, and cheap. In addition they are user-friendly, have a high throughput, and are amenable to field-testing. A major step forward that opened the door for the more general use of immunoassays was the development of enzyme labels. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, ELISA, is the most used of immunological techniques. It has been used to verify the authenticity of several food commodities such as meat, fish, and dairy products. It can also detect presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and undeclared processes like food irradiation.

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy wiki:               Immunology: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology</a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Immunoassay: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoassay"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunoassay </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        ELISA: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISA"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELISA </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Food irradiation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal><img border=0 width=601 height=358 id="Obrázek 6" src="Authent-Net_Wiki_v1_soubory/image002.jpg" alt="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0165993615301291-trac14690-fig-0002.jpg">

<p class=MsoNormal> Figure: Publications assessed in scopus 9–2015 distributed between different techniques.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal><img border=0 width=605 height=294 src="Authent-Net_Wiki_v1_soubory/image003.jpg" alt="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0165993615301291-trac14690-fig-0003.jpg">

<p class=MsoNormal> Figure: Temporal evolution per technique.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal>Zdroj obrázky: DANEZIS, Georgios P., et al. Food authentication: Techniques, trends &amp; emerging approaches. <i>TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry</i>, 2016, 85: 123-132.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal><b> Chemometrics for food authenticity applications </b>

<p class=MsoNormal> For processing large data sets acquired within the food authenticity analysis by different methods, effective tools capable of rapid data mining procedures have to be used. The most common way of getting useful information from measured data is to process them by multivariate pattern recognition methods, which facilitate consideration of intercorrelations between measured variables, providing what is called an analytical fingerprint. According to literature, that multivariate pattern recognition approaches are able to provide effective models to verify food authenticity while the univariate approach often fails. Pattern recognition methods can be used for different purposes such as data exploration and the development of predictive models. The output of these models can be qualitative or quantitative, depending on the particular purpose. A proper validation of predictive models is always required to provide reliable predictions. (kniha Advances in food authenticity testing, chapter 25)

<p class=MsoNormal> Data handling can be divided into two steps: data pretreatment and data analysis. Data pretreatment consist of cleaning and transforming the raw data obtained into a format that can be used for the subsequent data analysis steps. Data pretreatment generally includes removing baseline artefacts, peak-picking, alignment and normalisation, scaling and transformation. For data analysis, there are three basic categories, which relate to the purpose of a study: exploratory analysis, classification analysis / discriminant analysis, and regression analysis/prediction models.

<p class=MsoNormal> Unsupervised methods used in exploratory analysis consist of algorithms that cluster metabolites into groups with no prior knowledge of group membership and visualise the data to emphasise their similarities and differences (examples: principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA)).

<p class=MsoNormal> For classification analysis / discriminant analysis category supervised methods are used. A model that associates metabolite data with membership of sample classes is built (examples of discriminant analysis: artificial neural networks (ANN), linear discriminant analysis (LDA) partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), canonical variate analysis (CVA); discriminant function analysis (DFA) and support vector machine (SVM), examples of regression analysis: multiple linear regression (MLR), principal components regression (PCR), partial least squares (PLS), and orthogonal partial least squares (OPLS).

<p class=MsoNormal> For predictive metabolomics (regression analysis / prediction models) multivariate data analysis focuses on quantification. The used algorithms are based on supervised learning techniques, however the reference data used is the level of the target determined instead of class membership. A widely used algorithm is partial least squares regression (PLSR). (Cubero-Leon E., 2014).

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy na wiki:

<p class=MsoNormal> chemometrics <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemometrics"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemometrics </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Multivariate analysis <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivariate_analysis"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multivariate_analysis </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Univariate analysis <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate_analysis"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univariate_analysis </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> PCA <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_analysis </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> HCA <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_clustering"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchical_clustering </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> ANN <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_network </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> LDA <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_discriminant_analysis </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> PLSR <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_least_squares_regression"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_least_squares_regression </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> CVA <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_analysis"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canonical_analysis </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> DFA <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminant_function_analysis"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discriminant_function_analysis </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> SVM <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_vector_machine"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_vector_machine </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Linear regression <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> PCR <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_regression"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_component_regression </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>

6.      Traceability

<p class=MsoNormal> The food industry is becoming more customer-oriented and needs faster response times to deal with food scandals and incidents. Good traceability systems help to minimize the production and distribution of unsafe or poor quality products, thereby minimizing the potential for bad publicity, liability, and recalls. The current food labelling system cannot guarantee that the food is authentic, good quality and safe. Therefore, traceability is applied as a tool to assist in the assurance of food safety and quality as well as to achieve consumer confidence.

<p class=MsoNormal> Nowadays, the distance that food travels from producer to consumer has increased as a result of globalization in food trade. Therefore, keeping safety and quality along the food supply chain has become a significant challenge. In response to growing food safety issues, the laws, policies and standards regarding food safety and quality management have been developed for the food industry. Quality assurance has become a cornerstone of food safety policy in the food industry that started to implement integrated quality and food safety management systems. Traceability is found as a tool to comply with legislation and to meet the food safety and quality requirements. It is considered to be an effective safety- and quality-monitoring system with the potential to improve safety within food chains, as well as to increase consumer confidence and to connect producers and consumers. Due to globalization in food trade, food chain integrity not only includes safety concerns but also origin fraud and quality concern. There is a need for a traceability system giving information on origin, processing, retailing and final destination of foodstuffs.

<p class=MsoNormal> Accordingly, several definitions of traceability and its classifications which come from organizations, legislations and research literature can be found. According to ISO 8402 (1994) quality standards, traceability is defined as: “the ability to trace the history, application or location of an entity by means of recorded identification”. In ISO 9000 (2005) standards, the definition is extended into ‘‘the ability to trace the history, application or location of that which is under consideration”. ISO guidelines further specify that traceability may refer to the origin of materials and parts, the processing history, and the distribution and location of the product after delivery.

<p class=MsoNormal> The European Union (EU) regulation 178/2002 (EU, 2002) narrows the definition to the food industry by defining traceability as the ability to trace and follow a food, feed, food-producing animal or substance intended to be, or expected to be incorporated into a food or feed, through all stages of production, processing and distribution. The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC, 2005) defines a more concise definition of traceability as the ability to follow the movement of a food through specified stage(s) of production, processing and distribution.

<p class=MsoNormal> An independent food safety <span lang=EN-GB> watchdog, Food Standard Agency (FSA, 2002) identified three basic characteristics for traceability systems: i) identification of units/batches of all ingredients and products, ii) information on when and where they are moved and transformed, and iii) a system linking these data. To enable traceability, an entity to trace has to be a Traceable Resource Unit (TRU). There are three types of traceable units: batch, trade unit and logistic unit. A batch is defined as a quantity going through the same processes. A trade unit is a unit which is sent from one company to the next company in a supply chain (e.g. a box, a bottle or pack of bottles). The logistic unit is a type of trade unit, and it designates the grouping that a business creates before transportation or storage (e.g. pallet, container, etc.).

<p class=MsoNormal> Under EU law, “traceability” means the ability to track any food, feed, food-producing animal or substance that will be used for consumption, through all stages of production, processing and distribution. Traceability is a risk-management tool which allows food business operators or authorities to withdraw or recall products which have been identified as unsafe. It is a cornerstone of the EU’s food safety policy.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:0cm'> (https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/gfl_req_factsheet_traceability_2007_en.pdf)

<p class=MsoNormal> The principles and basic requirements for the design and implementation of a feed and food traceability system are specified in ISO 22005:2007. ( <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/36297.html"> https://www.iso.org/standard/36297.html </a><span lang=EN-US>).

<p class=MsoNormal><img border=0 width=535 height=354 id="obrázek 7" src="Authent-Net_Wiki_v1_soubory/image004.jpg" alt="https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S0956713513005811-gr4.jpg">

<p class=MsoNormal> Figure: Conceptual framework of food traceability system.

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: AUNG, Myo Min; CHANG, Yoon Seok. Traceability in a food supply chain: Safety and quality perspectives. <i>Food control</i>, 2014, 39: 172-184.

<p class=MsoNormal> Blockchain technology 

<p class=MsoNormal> Traceability and control is possible also <span lang=EN-GB>through so-called blockchain. Simply put, blockchain technology is a way of storing and sharing information across a network of users in an open virtual space. Blockchain technology allows for users to look at all transactions simultaneously and in real-time. In food, for example, a retailer would know with whom his supplier has had dealings. Additionally, since transactions are not stored in any single location, it is almost impossible to hack the information.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:12.0pt'> Three major benefits blockchain brings:

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:53.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· The data cannot be manipulated

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:53.85pt;text-indent: -18.0pt'> · The supply chain can secure traceability and control without all participants disclosing all their customers and suppliers to a central party. The level of privacy to enforce can be decided by the participants in the system

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:53.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US style='font-family:Symbol'>· The blockchain creates trust in low cost IT solutions. You can use email, Word, mobile phones etc. and still be sure data is accurate. This allows for example rural farmers and independent truck drivers to integrate with the system.

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:12.0pt'> Three areas of applications are identified that are interesting to investigate further and might prove feasible to be areas to develop pilots and proof of concepts around.

<p class=MsoNormal> 1. Conditions at the production facility

<p class=MsoNormal> Conditions at product sites, like factories, fields, or fishing boats, are today difficult to verify and include labor conditions, environmental conditions, quality control in production etc. The blockchain could be used to make it very difficult to falsify or misrepresent conditions in production. A digital representation of the conditions such as a photo or a digital file can be stored at the production facility, or in a mobile app. This could for example be a photograph of a catch of fish or a factory during operation. A verification of the same files, a digital fingerprint in the form of a hash, is published in a blockchain. Time and location cannot be manipulated since it is recorded in the blockchain. By making random inspections an inspector can then verify that the photograph corresponds to the actual conditions at the facility, the workforce, and that the outcome/production corresponds to the one reported to the blockchain.

<p class=MsoNormal> 2. Tracking of food volumes in the supply chain

<p class=MsoNormal> Identification of individual grains, beans or bulk commodities often bought on a spot market such as coffea, tea, oils, sugar, cacao etc or are difficult or impossible to track. However, with the blockchain it is possible to track the total volumes bought and sold for each participant in the supply chain. The benefit from using the blockchain is that no central party needs to be trusted in getting all the data on transactions and actors, while still for example let volumes be transparent for everyone in the chain. To exemplify; with the blockchain the volumes of organic soybeans sold cannot be higher than the volume of organic soybeans bought for any party in the supply chain. Also, with blockchain it’s not possible to buy ordinary rice and mix it with a small portion of basmati rice, and sell the entire volume at the higher basmati rice price since the tracked amount of basmati rice going in to the chain cannot be higher than the volume going out.

<p class=MsoNormal> 3. Tracking of food items in the supply chain

<p class=MsoNormal> Blockchain technology enables possibilities to track a particular package of food, can or any item to which you can put a unique identifier such as a barcode, QR code, or a RfID transmitter. Compared with existing technologies, the blockchain can easily regulate who gets access to the information and identities behind each product. Integration between regular transaction data and more complex data such as sensor data of temperature and humidity can be directly connected to the product. The cost and speed of implementation can probably benefit from an integration with existing product IDs such as the ones provided by GS1

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: <a href="https://www.sklkommentus.se/globalassets/kommentus/bilder/publication-eng-blockchain-for-food-traceability-and-control-2017.pdf"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.sklkommentus.se/globalassets/kommentus/bilder/publication-eng-blockchain-for-food-traceability-and-control-2017.pdf </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> GS1 provides a set of open standards enabling data sharing in a standardized manner that enable interoperability between different business partners. In this context, GS1 standards can be used to describe transactions and events in a way that every actor along a supply chain can interpret these the same way and blockchain technologies could be used to share this data in a secure and trusted manner.

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: <a href="https://www.sklkommentus.se/globalassets/kommentus/bilder/publication-eng-blockchain-for-food-traceability-and-control-2017.pdf"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.sklkommentus.se/globalassets/kommentus/bilder/publication-eng-blockchain-for-food-traceability-and-control-2017.pdf </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkazy Wiki:              Traceability: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traceability

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:70.8pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-US>Codex alimentarius: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Alimentarius"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Alimentarius </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        ISO: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        FSA: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Standards_Agency </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Blackchain: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        Barcode: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcode"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcode </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        QR code: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_code"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QR_code </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        RFID: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequency_identification

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:70.8pt;text-indent:35.4pt'>GS1<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GS1"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GS1 </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Obecné odkazy:         CAC: <a href="https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/international-affairs/us-codex-alimentarius/Codex+Alimentarius+Commission"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/international-affairs/us-codex-alimentarius/Codex+Alimentarius+Commission </a><span lang=EN-US>                                       ISO: <a href="https://www.iso.org/standards.html"> https://www.iso.org/standards.html </a>

<p class=MsoNormal>                                        FSA: https://www.food.gov.uk/

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:70.8pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-US>GS1: ( <a href="https://www.gs1.org/"> https://www.gs1.org/ </a><span lang=EN-US>)ISO 8402: <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/20115.html"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.iso.org/standard/20115.html </a>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:70.8pt;text-indent:35.4pt'><span lang=EN-US>ISO 9000: <a href="https://www.iso.org/standard/42180.html"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.iso.org/standard/42180.html </a>

<p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:12.0pt'><b> Traceability tools </b>

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>a)       The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent: 0cm'> see chapter Cooperation within the EU

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:0cm'><span lang=EN-US> ( <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/rasff_en"><span lang=EN-US>https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/rasff_en </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkaz portal: <a href="https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/rasff-window/portal/"> https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/rasff-window/portal/ </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkaz Wiki: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_Alert_System_for_Food_and_Feed"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_Alert_System_for_Food_and_Feed </a>

<p class=MsoListParagraph style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>b)       The TRAde Control and Expert System (TRACES) is the European Commission's multilingual online management tool for all sanitary requirements on intra-EU trade and importation of animals, semen and embryo, food, feed and plants. Its main objective is to digitise the entire certification process and linked procedures, and is in line with the declaration of the Digital Agenda for Europe. (https://ec.europa.eu/food/animals/traces_en)

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkaz Wiki: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRACES"> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRACES </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Traceability Systems 

<p class=MsoNormal> The aim of a traceability system is to collect in a rigorous way all the information related to the displacement of the different products along the supply chain. This information proves essential when facing food safety crisis, and allows efficiently managing the consequent product recall action. (Dabbene F, 2011). For implementing a functional traceability system, there is available a Handbook for introduction of food traceability systems (Guidelines for food traceability. This handbook is directed toward producers of primary production, food processors, distributors, retailers, restaurant and take-out food operators, information related companies, organization and industrial associations of prospective companies and individuals who plan to introduce traceability system. The handbook supports the introduction of the traceability system by including fundamentals, procedures, and so forth. For food operators and their organizations and industrial associations which already have introduced traceability systems, this handbook provides guidelines that can help in conducting employee training, in reviewing the current system, in expanding the subject range of the traceability system, and in realizing the system connections with other food operators.

<p class=MsoNormal> ( <a href="http://www.maff.go.jp/j/syouan/seisaku/trace/attach/pdf/index-67.pdf"><span lang=EN-US>http://www.maff.go.jp/j/syouan/seisaku/trace/attach/pdf/index-67.pdf </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoNormal> 

7.      EU legislation

<p class=MsoNormal> The European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union and the national authorities in each Member State are responsible for decisions on EU food safety legislation.

<p class=MsoNormal> The General Food Law Regulation is the foundation of food and feed law. It sets outs an overarching and coherent framework for the development of food and feed legislation both at Union and national levels. To this end, it lays down general principles, requirements and procedures that underpin decision making in matters of food and feed safety, covering all stages of food and feed production and distribution. (https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/general_food_law_en)

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:0cm'> The General Food Law Regulation: Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law, establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety. ( <a href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1517411341163&amp;uri=CELEX:32002R0178"><span lang=EN-US>http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1517411341163&amp;uri=CELEX:32002R0178 </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:0cm'> Other Regulations concerning food and feed:

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>a)       Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004 Text with EEA relevance. (http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1517411570386&amp;uri=CELEX:32011R1169)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>b)       Regulation (EC) No 882/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 on official controls performed to ensure the verification of compliance with feed and food law, animal health and animal welfare rules. ( <a href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1517411628334&amp;uri=CELEX:32004R0882"><span lang=EN-US>http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1517411628334&amp;uri=CELEX:32004R0882 </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:0cm'> Other European and national legislation might be found at Food Authenticity Research Network Hub (FARNHub) website.

<p class=MsoNormal style='text-indent:0cm'> Odkaz: <a href="http://farnhub.authent.cra.wallonie.be/"> http://farnhub.authent.cra.wallonie.be/ </a>

8.      Cooperation within the EU

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>a)       The Administrative Assistance and Cooperation System (AACS) is an Information Technology system developed by the European Commission for EU countries to exchange data in a structured manner regarding non-compliances with food and feed legislation. The AAC system is a means for a Member State to rapidly confirm a suspicion of fraud: they contact the competent authorities in the Member State of origin of the product via the system and prepare a solid file on the case which can lead to either administrative sanctions or judicial proceedings. ( <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food-fraud/aas_en"> https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food-fraud/aas_en </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent: -18.0pt'> b)       The EU Food Fraud Network (FFN) was set up in response to the horse meat crisis, with the aim of allowing the EU countries to work in accordance with the rules laid down in Articles 36-40 of the Official Controls Regulation (Regulation 882/2004, rules on administrative cooperation and assistance) in matters where the national authorities are confronted with possible intentional violations of food chain law with a cross-border impact. The EU Food Fraud Network consists of: 28 national contact points in the Member States, Switzerland, Norway and Iceland and European Commission. ( <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food-fraud/ffn_en"> https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/food-fraud/ffn_en </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent: -18.0pt'> c)       Better Training for Safer Food (BTSF) is a Commission training initiative covering food and feed law, animal health and welfare and plant health rules. The main objectives of the initiative &quot;Better Training for Safer Food&quot; are the organisation and development of an EU training strategy. ( <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/btsf_en"> https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/btsf_en </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent: -18.0pt'> d)       The Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) is a key tool to ensure the flow of information to enabling swift reaction when risks to public health are detected in the food chain. It enables information to be shared efficiently between its members (EU-28 national food safety authorities, Commission, EFSA, ESA, Norway, Liechtenstein, Iceland and Switzerland) and provides a round-the-clock service to ensure that urgent notifications are sent, received and responded to collectively and efficiently. Thanks to RASFF, many food safety risks had been averted before they could have been harmful to European consumers. The RASFF portal features an interactive searchable online database. It gives public access to summary information about the most recently transmitted RASFF notifications as well as the ability to search for information on any notification issued in the past.

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:0cm'><span lang=EN-US> ( <a href="https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/rasff_en"><span lang=EN-US>https://ec.europa.eu/food/safety/rasff_en </a><span lang=EN-US>)

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkaz portal: <a href="https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/rasff-window/portal/"> https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/rasff-window/portal/ </a>

<p class=MsoNormal> Odkaz Wiki: <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_Alert_System_for_Food_and_Feed"><span lang=EN-US>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_Alert_System_for_Food_and_Feed </a>

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-US>e)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent: -18.0pt'> f)        The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is an agency funded by the European Union that operates independently of the European legislative and executive institutions (Commission, Council and Parliament) and EU Member States. It was set up in 2002 following a series of food crises in the late 1990s to be a source of scientific advice and communication on risks associated with the food chain. The agency was legally established by the EU under the General Food Law - Regulation 178/2002. (https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/aboutefsa)

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:35.85pt;text-indent:0cm'><span lang=EN-US>Odkaz Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority

9.      Commodities susceptible to food fraud

<p class=MsoNormal> Food fraud often has been considered to be foremost an economic issue and less a concern of the traditional food safety or food protection intervention and response infrastructure. However, any adulteration results in a change of the identity and/or purity of the original and purported ingredient by substituting, diluting, or modifying it by physical or chemical means. (Moore 2012)

<p class=MsoNormal> Food fraud is generally easier for liquids than solids, and complex foods with multiple ingredients generally offer greater fraud opportunity than simple, single-ingredient foods. Longer supply chains result in higher food fraud risk. ( <a href="https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/services/food-supply-integrity-services/assets/pwc-food-fraud-vulnerability-assessment-and-mitigation-november.pdf"><span lang=EN-US>https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/services/food-supply-integrity-services/assets/pwc-food-fraud-vulnerability-assessment-and-mitigation-november.pdf </a><span lang=EN-US>).

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> In general, foods and food ingredients commonly associated with food fraud include oil, &#64257;sh, honey, milk and dairy products, meat products, grain-based foods, fruit juices, wine and alcoholic beverages, organic foods, spices, cofee, tea, and some highly processed foods.

<p class=MsoNormal align=left style='text-align:left;text-indent:0cm; line-height:normal'>

<p class=MsoNormal align=left style='text-align:left;text-indent:0cm; line-height:normal'>   <img border=0 width=605 height=356 id="Obrázek 3" src="Authent-Net_Wiki_v1_soubory/image005.jpg" alt="https://images.readcube-cdn.com/publishers/wiley/figures/45ac74b5678fa6b45b3f4f62e98f65b8fa43f6506eb4cf6417b99b2b3289cae9/1.jpg">

<p class=MsoNormal> Figure: Major <span class=a> technologies for <span class=current-selection>the <span class=current-selection>detection <span class=current-selection>of <span class=current-selection>food <span class=current-selection>fraud, <span class=current-selection>as <span class=current-selection>reported <span class=current-selection>in <span class=current-selection>the <span class=current-selection>literature <span class=current-selection>from <span class=current-selection>2005 <span class=current-selection>to <span class=current-selection>2015.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> Zdroj: HONG, Eunyoung, et al. Modern analytical methods for the detection of food fraud and adulteration by food category. Journal of the science of food and agriculture, 2017.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> OPSON is a special project of Europol INTERPOL joint operation targeting fake and substandard food and beverages. They prepared a big report with all investigated items, which is available on their web sites ( <a href="https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/europol-in-action/operations/operation-opson"><span lang=EN-GB>https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/europol-in-action/operations/operation-opson </a><span lang=EN-GB>). The newest report, at this moment, is OPSON VI (December 2016 – March 2017) - <a href="https://www.europol.europa.eu/newsroom/news/eur-230-million-worth-of-fake-food-and-beverages-seized-in-global-opson-operation-targeting-food-fraud"><span lang=EN-GB>https://www.europol.europa.eu/newsroom/news/eur-230-million-worth-of-fake-food-and-beverages-seized-in-global-opson-operation-targeting-food-fraud </a><span lang=EN-GB>.

<p class=MsoNormal> During this period many investigation actions have been done. <span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt; line-height:150%'>65 countries and 20 private partners <span lang=EN-US style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%'>, from 22 EU Member States (MS) and 43 non-EU countries, participated in Operation OPSON VI.

<p class=MsoNormal><img border=0 width=605 height=331 id="Obrázek 8" src="Authent-Net_Wiki_v1_soubory/image006.png">

<p class=MsoNormal> Figure: Participating countries in OPSON VI Dark orange: countries participating for the first time

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> This represents the largest number of participating countries, especially for non EU countries, since the beginning of OPSON in 2011. 57 countries took part in OPSON V. In total, 13,407.60 tonnes, 26,336,305.3 litres and 11,118,832 units of either counterfeit or substandard food and beverages have been seized during the four month operational phase of OPSON VI. The total value of these illicit goods amounts to 235,681,849.87 EUR. Participating countries reported more than 50,128 inspections and checks, and 13,711 persons arrested or investigated. They opened 6,282 administrative and criminal cases. Investigations started in the framework of OPSON VI led to the dismantling of seven organized crime groups, reported as such by the countries and involved in the production of illegal food, other goods smuggling and other criminal activities.

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal><img border=0 width=580 height=280 id="Obrázek 1" src="Authent-Net_Wiki_v1_soubory/image007.jpg">

<p class=MsoNormal> Figure: types of seized products by cases

<p class=MsoNormal>

<p class=MsoNormal> Several cases of revealed food frauds, from OPSON operation, are listed below:

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst style='margin-left:21.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'> <i> Case example Portugal </i><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height: 150%'>: counterfeit tin cans of fish - The Portuguese Food Safety and Economic Authority (ASAE) raided a factory in the area of Porto which resulted in the finding of processed fish manufactured without respect for safety rules. This outcome was achieved after several weeks of investigation and surveillance work. The plant was targeted as its license to process food had been already withdrawn. ASAE uncovered illicit activities consisting in repacking almost expired sardines in tomato sauce, regardless of traceability and hygienic rules. Products were intended for exportation and intra EU deliveries. The business was closed immediately after the action day. All material found in the premises was seized, namely 311,000 cans, 16 jars of tomato sauce, 9,900 packing boxes, 24,730 labels and 700 Kilos of salt.

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:21.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'> <i> Case examples Italy </i><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height: 150%'>: fake mineral water and counterfeit wine - Italian Carabinieri NAS in cooperation with the Ministry of Health seized more than 266,000 litres of mineral water (almost 32,000 bottles) in the area of Lazio. Bottles imitated a registered trademark of mineral water. Labels and shapes of the plastic containers were similar to the genuine products. Investigations revealed that the water originated from the same source. However, no market authorization had been granted and bottling was done without regards of health and safety regulations. One person was arrested. In Tuscany, Italian Carabinieri dismantled an Organised Crime Group (OCG) involved in the production and distribution of fake wine, sold as famous and protected red wine (protected geographical indication of origin). The investigation was coordinated by the antimafia regional unit of Florence. In total, 13 persons have been identified and three of them arrested. In the OCG, each individual was in charge of specific tasks regarding production and distribution of the bottles. Pure alcohol was added to low quality wine used as raw material to increase the volume of alcohol. Labels, including fake official labels of protected geographical indications were placed on the bottles at the final stage of production. These illicit activities took place on a farm located in the Tuscan countryside. The property has been seized. Wine was sold on the Italian market and abroad.

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:21.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'> <i> Case example USA </i><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height: 150%'>: mislabeled shrimps - The US authorities reported that a large amount of imported shrimps was mislabeled and possibly adulterated. According to the information received, seized shrimps were declared as originating from Malaysia, when the true origin was Chinese. Declaring a false origin allows to avoid customs duties. In addition, the shrimps contained excessive amounts of Nitro-Furan, a substance used in antibiotics.

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle style='margin-left:21.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'> <i> Case example South Korea </i><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt; line-height:150%'>: added water in frozen products - Actions of the Korean Police revealed that two suspects had added water to frozen freshwater snails in order to increase the weight. Furthermore, they packed the products into new packaging, thus making it look as if it was freshly packed and selling it by deceiving the buyers regarding the real weight of the products. The estimation of the Korean police indicates that using this modus operandi, the two persons managed to sell merchandise of approximately 3,449,188.57 EUR (170,000,000 KRW).

<p class=MsoListParagraphCxSpLast style='margin-left:21.3pt;text-indent:-18.0pt'><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height:150%;font-family:Symbol'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'> <i> Case example Nigeria </i><span lang=EN-GB style='font-size:11.0pt;line-height: 150%'>: seizure of counterfeit Champagne - The National Agency for Foods and Drugs Administration and Control in Nigeria seized counterfeit alcoholic beverages amongst which were 51.3 litres of counterfeit champagne. The investigation in Nigeria has shown that the labels and packaging materials of these counterfeit products were smuggled into Nigeria from an unknown location. The investigation is ongoing