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'Linguistics'
 * Phonetics

IPA

Sound chartIPA Chart Line 1: Line 1: 'Linguistics' 'Linguistics' : Phonetics : Phonetics − IPAInternational Phonetics Alphabet + IPA − Manner of articulation: stop, fricative, affricate, nasal, retroflex, lateral, semivowel - − Place of articulation: Bilabial, Labiodental, Interdental, Alveolar, Alveopalatal, Velar - unmoveable parts of the mouth involved in articulation of sounds. Articulators are moveable parts of the mouth (lips, bottom teeth, tongue [tip, blade and back]and jaw). Articulators approach places of articulation causing airstream to be altered in different ways. Sound chartIPA Chart Sound chartIPA Chart − 	Front (unrounded)	Central (unrounded)	Back (rounded) + testing − High - tense	iy (beat)		                  Uw (boot) Syntax − High – lax	I (bit		                           ᶹ(book) Heads and Complements − Mid – tense	ey (bait)	ə (machine	           ow (boat) head= central element in a syntactic structure. e.g., a tall handsome MAN − Mid-lax	       ɛ (bet)        	ᴧ (but)	                    ɔ (bought) Word Order marked and unmarked, p. 51, wordorder and the passive, 122 movable particles, 126, movability of adjuncts, 203 , word order and temporal adverbial clauses, 280, Extraposition? Adjunctive order? stacking and Coordination of Adjuncts? − Low	       æ (bat)        	ɔ (pot) Syntactic phrases: − Difference between Consonants, Vowels and Glides: NP a noun head and it's modifierse.g. a sweet kitten, a telegram from my brother − Consonants involve a narrowing in mouth which in turn causes some obstruction of airstream. VP in general grammar= entire predicate except auxiliary, book = main verb and auxiliary except rest of predicate − Vowels: air passes rather freely through mouth. PP p. 192 usually has a partitive interpretation vs. holistic interpretation − Semi-vowels (glides): Consonant sounds produced with little turbulence in airstream made with relatively wide opening of mouth (y, w) ADvp Adjunct, Conjunct, Disjunct, see workbook

AP when intensifief modifies an adjective phrase, it becomes part of adjective phrase, p. 181 Verbs: Transitive= any verb that can take direct object ditransitive=any verb that can take both direct and indirect object intransitive a verb that does not normally take a direct object,e.g., the kids slept, Michael sat on the couch copulative=small class of verbs that link the subject to it's complement complex transitive= a verb that takes a d.o and object complement prepositional= verb particle? = preposition like verbs that occur in multi-word lexical verbs, some move position after d.o, e.g. put cat out, others unmovable, e.g. called on cousins − Phonemes: Basic unit of language's phonology which is combined with other phonemes to form meaningful units such as words or morphemes. tense particuliar set of inflectional affixes that communicate information and time frame, ENglish has 2, past and present − Allophones: Different speech sounds representing the same phoneme mood= and modality? Imperative, distinctive kind of directive, subjunctive − Role of minimal pairs: sounds that can be substituted for one another in words t cause a change in meaning. Pairs of words that differ in meaning on basis of one sound. i.e. /θ/     /S/ aspect = works with tense to establish time frame of action, event, or state, see perfect and progressive −                                     thank   sank English auxiliary primary auxiliary= the semantically empty auxiliaries BE and Have which are used in constructing the perfect, progressive and passive and periphrasic DO, Modal auxiliary p.132= A special class of verbs in ENglish, predates OLD English major modern Germanic languages  have some aux. semantically rich and inflectionally impoverished, no 3rd person present(s) ending, no past participle form, mosssst modals do not have present tense can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, must, ought, ought to −                                     think   sink movement rules Aux? Neg? Do? , movable particles vs. unmoveable particles? −                                      bath   bass interogativetive format, yes/no = typically requires that operator precede subject.p. 154-156 −                                      math   mass info seeking= wh questions (including how) word order is always the same, operator precedes subject.Tag question, affirmation of proposition contained in statement. Ted won't cheat, will he? p.156 Negative formation., primary tool = not *not always follows the first auxiliary in the verb phrase, In most cases, not is contractedn't and attached to that auxilary. e.g. Ed can't attend the party.,, EXCEPTION is am not= I'm attached to subject., will = won't, shall= shan't may = mayn't ( latter 2 rarely used) Passive formation= a construction that contains the auxiliary BE or GET plus a past participle. Subject is typicallt affected by the action of the verb. e.g. Rocky got mugged., They were annoyed by... relative formation  a relative clause = wh claus that always follows an NP, the relative proform always has a grammatical function w/in the clause and at the same time acts as a subordinator. wh clauses differ from interrogatives in that the operator DOES NOT MOVE, p.256 finite clauses= verb phrase, (carries tense) infinite clauses= nonfinite clauses (does not carry tense), those in which the the verb occurs in infinitive form, e.g. to sleep, to run − The Schwa ə : vowel sound made with tongue in midcentral position is schwa such as in machine. Most frequently occurring vowel in Emglish and plays a major role in the English stress system. /ər/ is an r-colored midcentral vowel in unstressed syllable and pronounced as schwa + : Morphology − Dipthongs (complex vowels): there are three complex sounds in English - sounds of 'bough', 'buy', 'boy' because they are a vowel followed by a semivowel, either /w/ or /y/. Phonetic symbols include /aw/ bough, /ay/ buy and /oy/ boy. Tense vowels /iy/, /ey/, /ow/, and /uw/ are also represented with semivowels because they onvolve movement of the tongue, but not classified as dipthongs because there is less tongue movement than with dipthongs. + MORPHOLOGY - study of the shapes of words − Assimilation: when talking about connected speech in English, assimilation refers to the linking of conconants to consonants often causing a change in the place of articulation of first consonant. The first consonant becomes more like (assimilates to) the second one. + LEXEME - "word with meaning" or "word formation" − Assimilation of nasals - occurs with final nasal consonants of function words. Particularly frequent in casual speech. − I.E. Written Form       Spoken Form          Assimilation −     I can believe it   [ay kəm bəliyve ət    n → m −      I can go           [ay kæŋk gow]         n → ŋ −     I don't believe it  [ay domp bəliyv ət]  nt → mp

testing
 * Syntax

Heads and Complements head= central element in a syntactic structure. e.g., a tall handsome MAN

Word Order marked and unmarked, p. 51, wordorder and the passive, 122 movable particles, 126, movability of adjuncts, 203 , word order and temporal adverbial clauses, 280, Extraposition? Adjunctive order? stacking and Coordination of Adjuncts?

Syntactic phrases: NP a noun head and it's modifierse.g. a sweet kitten, a telegram from my brother VP in general grammar= entire predicate except auxiliary, book = main verb and auxiliary except rest of predicate PPp. 192 usually has a partitive interpretation vs. holistic interpretation ADvp Adjunct, Conjunct, Disjunct, see workbook AP when intensifief modifies an adjective phrase, it becomes part of adjective phrase, p. 181

Verbs: Transitive= any verb that can take direct object ditransitive=any verb that can take both direct and indirect object intransitive a verb that does not normally take a direct object,e.g., the kids slept, Michael sat on the couch copulative''=small class of verbs that link the subject to it's complement complex transitive''= a verb that takes a d.o and object complement prepositional= verb particle? = preposition like verbs that occur in multi-word lexical verbs, some move position after d.o, e.g. put cat out, others unmovable, e.g. called on cousins

tense particuliar set of inflectional affixes that communicate information and time frame, ENglish has 2, past and present

mood= and modality? Imperative, distinctive kind of directive, subjunctive

aspect = works with tense to establish time frame of action, event, or state, see perfect and progressive

English auxiliary primary auxiliary= the semantically empty auxiliaries BE and Have which are used in constructing the perfect, progressive and passive and periphrasic DO, Modal auxiliary p.132= A special class of verbs in ENglish, predates OLD English major modern Germanic languages have some aux. semantically rich and inflectionally impoverished, no 3rd person present(s) ending, no past participle form, mosssst modals do not have present tense can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, must, ought, ought to movement rules Aux? Neg? Do? , movable particles vs. unmoveable particles?

interogative format , 'yes/no' = typically requires that operator precede subject.p. 154-156 'info seeking'= wh questions (including how) word order is always the same, operator precedes subject.Tag question, affirmation of proposition contained in statement. Ted won't cheat, will he? p.156

Negative formation., primary tool = not *not always follows the first auxiliary in the verb phrase, In most cases, not is contractedn't and attached to that auxilary. e.g. Ed can't attend the party.,, EXCEPTION is am not= I'm attached to subject., will = won't, shall= shan't may = mayn't ( latter 2 rarely used)

Passive formation= a construction that contains the auxiliary BE or GET plus a past participle. Subject is typicallt affected by the action of the verb. e.g. Rocky got mugged., They were annoyed by...

relative formation  a relative clause = wh claus that always follows an NP, the relative proform always has a grammatical function w/in the clause and at the same time acts as a subordinator. wh clauses differ from interrogatives in that the operator DOES NOT MOVE, p.256 finite clauses= verb phrase, (carries tense) infinite clauses= nonfinite clauses (does not carry tense), those in which the the verb occurs in infinitive form, e.g. to sleep, to run


 * Morphology

MORPHOLOGY - study of the shapes of words

LEXEME - "word with meaning" or "word formation"


 * Has an abstract grammatical entity
 * Represented by one or more inflected forms
 * Represented by one or more inflected forms


 * EXAMPLE: verb lexemes


 * PERFORM
 * Perform
 * Performs
 * Performing
 * Performed
 * Performing
 * Performed
 * Performed
 * Performed

CONTENT WORDS - words that carry meaning, extra linguistic meaning


 * EXAMPLE: nouns, full verbs, adverb of manner, adjectives


 * They are "open classes"

FUNCTION WORDS - they are "grammatical glue"
 * EXAMPLE - linking verbs, adverbs of place/time, pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions
 * They are "closed classes"

MORPHEMES - smallest unit of language with meaning


 * EXAMPLE
 * school - 1morpheme
 * bak/er - 2 morphemes
 * morph/eme/s - 3 morphemes

ALLOMORPHS
 * variant pronunciations of a morpheme
 * choice is determined by context
 * EXAMPLE
 * cats - /s/
 * dogs - /z/
 * horses - /iz/

FREE MORPHEME - has one meaning and can stand by itself
 * EXAMPLE - cat, school, computer

BOUND MORPHEME - needs to be attached to a word to make sense (like prefixes and suffixes)
 * EXAMPLE - de-, -s, -tion


 * Lexical Semantics


 * Sentence Semantics


 * Language on Languages

Universal syllableBold text- (http://wals.info/chapter/12) the universal syllable type is CV Question- What is the Universal syllable?

Structure- Basic sentence structure Mahler’s Workbook for English Syntax pg. 7

SOV vs. VSO languages- Korean and Japanese are SOV languages or head last. VSO- language is one in which the most typical sentences arrange their elements in that order, as in Ate Sam oranges (Sam ate oranges). Semitic languages (including formal (especially Classical) Arabic, Classical Hebrew, and Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic)), and Celtic languages (including Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, and Breton).VSO is the third-most common word order, after SOV (as in Latin and Japanese) and SVO (as in Standard Average European).

QUESTION- Which is the more typical sentence structure SOV or VSO? Give an example of what a sentence using the VSO structure would look/sound like. Name 1 language that uses SVO structure. (Arabic, Hebrew, Celtic

SOV- language is one in which the subject, object, and verb of a sentence appear or usually appear in that order. If English were SOV, then "Sam oranges ate" would be an ordinary sentence, as opposed to the actual Standard English "Sam ate oranges". The label is often used for ergative languages such as Adyghe and Basque that do not have subjects but have an agent–object–verb order.

QUESTION- What does SOV stand for? Using English, give an example of what a sentence would look/sound like. Name 1 language that using this structure. (Korean, Japanese & Latin)

Tonal languages- (Language Culture & Society pg. 47) A distinctive pitch level associated with a syllable is referred to as tone. Among the several dialect groups in China, (Taiwanese, Cantonese) Mandarin Chinese provides a good example of a tone system. (Teaching American English Pronunciation pg. 114) A change in pitch can cause a change in meaning. Pg. 81: The language of Mazateco is a tone language. The Mazateco Indians of northern Oaxaca. It is considered whistle speech. There are 4 distinctive pitch levels, or tonemes, in Mazateco, ranging from high, 1, to low, 4, with two intermediate tonemes, 2 and 3; when two different tones are associated with one syllabic nucleus, they form a glide.

QUESTION: Name 2 languages that are considered “tonal languages”.

Synthetic vs. analytical languages: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) Two primary categories exist to distinguish all languages: analytic languages and synthetic languages, where each term refers to the opposite end of a continuous scale including all the world's languages.

Analytic Language- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) show a low ratio of morphemes to words; in fact, the correspondence is nearly one-to-one. Grammatical relations between words are expressed by separate words where they might otherwise be expressed by affixes, which are present to a minimal degree in such languages. Grammatical categories are indicated by word order (for example, inversion of verb and subject for interrogative sentences) or by bringing in additional words (for example, a word for "some" or "many" instead of a plural inflection like English -s).

Synthetic Language- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) form words by affixing a given number of dependent morphemes to a root morpheme. They may be fused with the root or among themselves. Word order is less important for these languages than it is for analytic languages, since individual words express the grammatical relations that would otherwise be indicated by syntax.

QUESTION- What is the difference between analytic and synthetic languages? Which one is word order more important?

Morphological types: isolative- agglutinative- inflectional- fusional- polysynthetic languages-

Morphological Types: (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) the field organizes languages on the basis of how those languages form words by combining morphemes. Two primary categories exist to distinguish all languages: analytic languages and synthetic languages, where each term refers to the opposite end of a continuous scale including all the world's languages.

Isolating Languages- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) a type of language with a low morpheme-per-word ratio – in the extreme case of an isolating language words are composed of a single morpheme. A closely related concept is the analytic language, which in the extreme case does not use any inflections to indicate grammatical relationships (but which may still form compound words or may change the meanings of individual words with derivational morphemes, either of which processes gives more than one morpheme per word). Isolating languages are in contrast to synthetic languages, where words often consist of multiple morphemes. That linguistic classification is subdivided into the classifications fusional, agglutinative, and polysynthetic, which are based on how the morphemes are combined.

QUESTION- In an extreme case of an isolating language words are composed of how many morphemes?

Agglutinative language- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) have words containing several morphemes that are always clearly differentiable from one another in that each morpheme represents only one grammatical meaning and the boundaries between those morphemes are easily demarcated; that is, the bound morphemes are affixes, and they may be individually identified. Agglutinative languages tend to have a high number of morphemes per word, and their morphology is highly regular. Agglutinative languages include Finnish, Korean, Hungarian, Turkish, and Japanese.

QUESTION- In an agglutinative language each morpheme represents how many different grammatical meanings?

Inflectional morphology- (An Introduction to English Morphology pg. 144) area of morphology concerned with changes in word shape (e.g through affixation) that are determined by, or potentially affect, the grammatical context in which a word appears.

QUESTION- How does inflectional morphology change word shape?

Fusional Languages- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) Morphemes in fusional languages are not readily distinguishable from the root or among themselves. Several grammatical bits of meaning may be fused into one affix. Morphemes may also be expressed by internal phonological changes in the root (i.e. morphophonology), such as consonant gradation and vowel gradation, or by suprasegmental features such as stress or tone, which are of course inseparable from the root. Most Indo-European languages are fusional to a varying degree. A remarkably high degree of fusionality is also found in certain Sami languages such as Skolt Sami.

QUESTION- Are the morphemes in fusional languages easily distinguishable from the root? Name one way that morphemes may be expressed. (internal phonological changes in the root; morphophonology, consonant gradation, vowel gradation, suprasegmental features such as stress or tone.

Polysynthetic Languages- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_typology) In 1836, Wilhelm von Humboldt proposed a third category for classifying languages, a category that he labeled polysynthetic. These languages have a high morpheme-to-word ratio, a highly regular morphology, and a tendency for verb forms to include morphemes that refer to several arguments besides the subject (polypersonalism). Another feature of polysynthetic languages is commonly expressed as "the ability to form words that are equivalent to whole sentences in other languages". The distinction between synthetic languages and polysynthetic languages is therefore relative: the place of one language largely depends on its relation to other languages displaying similar characteristics on the same scale. Many Amerindian languages can be considered polysynthetic. Inuktitut is one example, for instance the word-phrase: tavvakiqutiqarpiit roughly translates to "Do you have any tobacco for sale?".

QUESTION¬- Name 1 language that is considered a polysynthetic language. In a polysynthetic language can one long word be equivalent to a whole sentence?


 * Pragmatics

'First and Second Language Acquisition'

 Skills and Frameworks