User:Feierabend Martina/sandbox

 Diseases 

Based on the numerous diseases for lupinus albus, the management is complex and very important. Higher yields can reach by early sowing dates, but this strategy can increase the affecting by pests and diseases.

Fungal diseases are often controlled with fungicides. To control the other diseases are the most effective practices the crop rotations and the use of disease-free seed.

 Fungi 

The following three fungi are lupin-specific and fully adapted to the presence of alkaloids :

Pleichaeta setosa causes brown-leaf spot. It is a problem of autumn-sown crops. Therefore with the use of winter-hardy plant and the selection of frost tolerant plants, the tolerance of the genetic material has increased.

Uromyces lupinicolus is rust, which causes defoliation and reduces the biomass production. It is mainly developed during warm and dry summer periods. The chemical treatment with triazole fungicides is effective. There is no breeding program about rust tolerant plants designed.

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a seed-borne fungus disease. Therefore it is present in an early lifecycle of the plant. So the plant can get killed before flowering, which means that the yield is null. In some cultivars resistance has been found. The most efficient way to control this fungi is trough seed treatment.

 Viruses 

Bean mosaic virus is transmitted by aphids and with infected seed. It is the major viral disease for lupinus albus. A major disease for the other lupines is cucumber mosaic virus. To this virus lupinus albus is immune.

 Pests 

Phorbia platura is the only inscect with significant impact on lupinus albus. ‘The larvae damage the roots and hypocotyls and may destroy the crop’. The only useful treatment is the use of soil insecticides or seed treatment with systemic insecticides.

Aphids are also a problem. Mostly they are found during budding and early pod stages. They reduce crop yield and the numbers of flowers and also lead to pod formation. They can also transmit diseases.

Other pests
 * bean seedling maggots (causing seedling to wilt and die)
 * beetle and moth larvae (kill seedling)
 * slugs (attack leaves)
 * thrips (attack flowers and leaves)
 * mired bugs (attack young seed pods)
 * budworms (feed on pods and seeds)