User:Fetteredmoon/Employment discrimination

By Region
Europe

A 2019 cross-national field experiment looking at 5 European nations, found that in the UK, Norway and the Netherlands, there was Anti-Muslim and origin based discrimination against job applicants in the private sector. They use a double comparative design in which they review job applicants originating from Muslim majority countries, that do and don't signal closeness to Islam in their resumes. This allows the researchers to untangle and view Anti-Muslim discrimination versus origin based or proximity based discrimination across these 5 nations and Muslim majority countries they studied. Researchers refer to this origin or proximity based discrimination as "Muslim by default effect." They also dubbed a show of closeness to Islam, for example volunteering at an association with Muslim connotation, as "disclosed Muslim effect." They collected data on "Call backs by country," "Probability to receive positive call back from the employer," and two versions of "Probability to receive an invitation from the employer." Their data recorded discrimination against those "originating from countries with a substantial Muslim population," and also found that when this was intersected with Muslims "signaling closeness to Islam," there was compounded hiring practice discrimination. They conclude that this discrimination contributes to the severe disadvantage faced by ethnic and religious minorities, including in the labor market. Germany, and Spain were also examined but were not found to have the same discrimination in hiring practice. This study did not formally assess institutional effects.

A literature review states that there are studies in France and Germany, suggesting Muslim men and Muslim women face labor market disadvantages.

Canada

In Canada, a 2019 journal article drew data from the 2011 National Household Survey which after filtering for labor market relevant responders, had a sample size of 192,652 records. White Christian women were used as a baseline for the study. After comparing many ethno-religious groups against this baseline, they found that many ethno-religious groups, with the exception of Arab and Black Muslim women were as likely as White women to obtain managerial and professional jobs. Aside from those named exceptions, the study found Muslim women had the highest likelihood of unemployment and being disadvantaged. The article concludes that while it's possible that "discouraged women" and "surplus education" could explain low labor market participation and employment rates in Muslim women, the most likely cause is discrimination based on "visibility and religious affiliation" The article describes this visibility as "physical visibility and cultural proximity the dominant group [of Muslims]." This means that atop previously confirmed racial discrimination, racialized Muslims face the added penalty of being visibly and proximally Muslim. The study claims this is likely due to a rise in Islamophobia. A European study from the same year calls this "Muslim by default effect."

The US

In the US, a journal article using pooled data from a 2007 and 2011 probability sample of Muslims living in the United States, found that there was a key difference in the employment of hijab-wearing Muslim women versus non-hjiab wearing Muslims but little difference in the employment of non-hijab wearing Muslim women and non-Muslim women; it calls this the "hijab effect". The study controls for demographic variables, migration history, human capital, and house hold composition to analyze "inter-religious" differences and "intra-Muslim" differences. Intra-Muslim differences looks at non-hijab wearing Muslim women and hijab wearing Muslim women. The article states that "conservative gender ideology" is not correlated with Muslim women's employment in the US. It suggests two possible reasons for the hijab effect. The first possible reason is employers discriminating against hijab wearing Muslim women during the hiring process. The second possible reason is that career oriented or job-driven Muslim women may feel less free to wear hijab or may not wear it to display their "careerism or avoid discrimination." The study can not provide direct evidence for employment discrimination. The researchers conclude that the study suggests non-structural discrimination.

Another study in the United States rans a field experiment with women posing as job applicants/"confederates" and interaction "observers." Each pair of observer and confederate entered eight different locations serving a similar demographic. The observer acted as clientele and timed interactions, while the confederate asked questions based on a script and training. Half of the time confederate wore hijab and the other times they did not wear hijab. Using this data the study concluded that there is formal and interpersonal discrimination against hijab wearing Muslim women. Formal discrimination, also referred to as overt discrimination, defined as conscious, explicit biases against a protected group. This was measured by. Interpersonal discrimination, also referred to as covert discrimination, defined as being less cordial, more disinterested and curt with protected groups.

From experiments
In 2013, a US based study showed Muslim hijab wearing women had a gap in call backs that women not wearing hijabs with the same employment profiles did not have. The study ran a field experiment of 49 male and 63 female employees from 72 retails stores and 40 restaurants with price points that targeted mid-income level clientele. 14 women ages 19-22 and of varied ethnicities, volunteered to act as job applicants, "confederates". 14 additional women acted as "interaction observers." Each observer was paired with one confederate to oversee all eight of the confederate's trails. For half the trails the confederate wore a plain black hijab and dressed similarly, for the other half they dressed similarly but didn't wear hijab. Confederates were coached on a verbal script and entering and leaving work places. Mock trials were held to prepare for the role. After training was complete confederate/observer pair were dispatched to eight different work places within a mall. The observer entered the store and acted as clientele, and timed the confederates interactions. The confederate, meanwhile, asked for a manager and then presented three questions regarding employment. The questions are as follow: "Do you have a job position open for a______ (sales representative/waitress)?", "Could I fill out a job application?", and "What sort of things would I be doing if I worked here?" The confederate and observer were asked not to speak to one another until they had completed submitting data to avoid bias. The research comes to the conclusion that there is formal and interpersonal discrimination against hijab wearing Muslim women.

Group
Additionally, in the US, Canada , UK, Norway, and Netherlands , there is hiring practice discrimination against Muslims. A US based studies suggest paid employment status is associated with well-being and mental and physical wellness.

(>> the next section create after end of 9.6 Examples and before protected categories + add justification for this section since it's a major change)

Muslim women
Salima Ebrahim, a Canadian Muslim woman on behalf of the Canadian Council of Muslim Women, sent the following five recommendations through open letter to the UN Human Right's Council's Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Working Group on Minorities. The first, that the Canadian government should fund governmental and non-governmental inter-faith projects. The second, that there needs to education set up for media on Muslim stereotype awareness and Muslim community liaisons. The third, transparency in government policies including stakeholder consultations with the appropriate Muslim community. The fourth, when collecting data government should disaggregate it based on gender and religion. The fifth, ensure recommendations made by Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, in 2004, be followed through.