User:Florenceandree/sandbox

Our project aimed to "clean up" the Wikipedia page on Sexism by rewriting most of its contents, and deleting unnecessary (or irrelevant) subsections. Nevertheless, considering the high activity on the Talk page and the significant amount of time invested by other (outside) editors on the page, we decided to refrain from deleting entire subsections. In that light, I chose to only rewrite the following subsections for the "Objectification" section: the lede, "in advertising", and "pornography". I chose to narrow my focus on these subsections as they are the most salient topics in academic debates concerning the relationship between sexism and objectification. I also rewrote the "gender discrimination in politics" section, which was originally an entire section on its own. In total, my contribution amounts to 720 words, and is located in the sandbox. We have opted for individual grades.

Objectification
Objectification is treating a person, usually a woman, as an object. By being objectified, a person is denied agency.

Nussbaum has identified the seven features of treating a human as an object as the following:

1.	instrumentality: treating the object as a tool for the objectifier’s purposes

2.	denial of autonomy: treating the object as lacking in autonomy and self-determination-

3.	inertness: - treating the object as lacking in agency

4.	fungibility: - treating the object as interchangeable with other objects

5.	violability: - treating the object as lacking in boundaries-integrity

6.	ownership: - treating the object as something that is owned by another (can be bought or sold);

7.	denial of subjectivity: treating the object as something whose experiences and feelings (if any) need not be taken into account.

According to objectification theory (Fredrickson & Robert, 1997) objectification can have important repercussions on women, particularly young women, as it can lead to mental disorders (depression, eating disorders, etc…).

Objectification is pervasive, and is evidenced in a variety of areas, such as advertising and pornography.

Advertising
While advertising used to portray women in obvious stereotypical ways (e.g. as a housewife), women in today’s advertisements women are no longer solely confined to the house. However, advertising today nonetheless still stereotypes women, albeit in more subtle ways, including by sexually objectifying them. This is problematic because there appears to be a relationship between the manner in which women are portrayed in advertising and people’s ideas about the role of women in society ). Research has shown that gender role stereotyping in advertising is linked to negative attitudes towards women, as well as more acceptance of sexual aggression against women and rape myth acceptance . Furthermore, gender role sterereotyping in advertisements may be injurious to women, as it is linked to negative body image and the development of eating disorders.

Pornography
Pornography, according to anti-pornography feminists Andrea Dworkin and Catharine MacKinnon, creates and sustains objectification. Indeed, they argue that pornography reduces women to mere tools. They illustrate the link between objectification and pornography two by stating:

"We define pornography as the graphic sexually explicit subordination of women through pictures and words that also includes (i) women are presented dehumanized as sexual objects, things, or commodities; or (ii) women are presented as sexual objects who enjoy humiliation or pain; or (iii) women are presented as sexual objects experiencing sexual pleasure in rape, incest or other sexual assault; or (iv) women are presented as sexual objects tied up, cut up or mutilated or bruised or physically hurt; or (v) women are presented in postures or positions of sexual submission, servility, or display; or (vi) women's body parts—including but not limited to vaginas, breasts, or buttocks — are exhibited such that women are reduced to those parts; or (vii) women are presented being penetrated by objects or animals; or (viii) women are presented in scenarios of degradation, humiliation, injury, torture, shown as filthy or inferior, bleeding, bruised, or hurt in a context that makes these conditions sexual."

Gender discrimination in politics
Gender has been used, at times, as a tool of discrimination against women in the political sphere. Indeed, Women's suffrage was not achieved until 1893, when New Zealand was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia was the last country to grant women the right to vote in 2011 While almost every woman today has the right to vote, there is still progress to be made for women in politics. Indeed, studies have shown that in several democracies including Australia, Canada and the United States, women are still represented using deep-rooted gender stereotypes in the press In fact, multiple authors have shown that gender differences in the media are less evident today than they used to be in the 1980s, but are nonetheless still present. Certain issues (e.g. education) are likely to be linked with female candidates, while other issues (e.g. taxes) are likely to be linked with male candidates. In addition, there is more emphasis on female candidates’ personal qualities, such as their appearance and their personality, as females are portrayed as “emotional” and “dependent”. This is problematic because voters’ views of the female and male candidates may be affected, as well as their views of women’s role in the political sphere