User:FrankK10/sandbox

Dub and Hip-hop
Dub was birthed in Kingston, Jamaica. Dub is a sub-genre that takes influence from Jamaican reggae and themes of electronic music. The term "dubplate" referred to acetates on which instrumental versions of popular songs were pressed to be checked on sound systems. The original dubplate versions were instrumentals of roots reggae songs, which became popular on the Kingston circuit after sound system owner ‘Ruddy' Redwood cut out an acetate of The Paragons' ‘On the Beach' (1967) at Duke Reid’s Treasure Isle studio, and engineer Byron Smith accidentally left the vocals out. Redwood chose to play the 'mistake' anyway, allowing his DJ to fill in the gaps with his own voice.

The deconstructive manner in which these engineers remixed reggae tracks, applying sound processing technology in unorthodox ways to produce a unique pop music language of fragmented song forms and reverberating soundscapes, is what gives dub music its significance as a style. While dub was and continues to be a more or less fluid process with no set laws, certain sonic tropes can be identified when tracing its evolution. Engineers and producers took the idea of the instrumental a step further by using multitrack technology to remove, incorporate, or rearrange other components (drums, guitars, bass) as well as implementing additional studio effects like reverb and echo. Since then, reverb and echo have been used in a wide range of musical genres, including rhythm and blues, country music, and western classical music.

This sub-genre of music can be found across various worldwide genres. One of these genres is hip hop, which came to prevalence in the early 1970s in the Bronx, New York, which was poverty stricken and particularly turbulent at the time when the city was burning due to arson attacks. 1973 saw DJ Kool Herc host what is now known as the first ‘hip hop party’ which featured his style of music, most notably extending the ‘break’ across records (which is where break dancing originated) and having a partner known as an MC (master of ceremonies) rhyme words over these breaks, now commonly referred to as ‘rapping’.

The theme of dub also massively continued through Grandmaster Flash, who is commonly credited for his huge role in the birth of hip hop. Hip hop’s roots lie in the realm of the DJ and his turntables. Grandmaster Flash was very well experienced with electronics to the point he could modify his records with breakthrough techniques, manipulating the records in unique ways. Flash was also the first DJ to incorporate acrobatics into his set, manipulating records behind his back, controlling the mixer with his feet or mouth, and performing other crazy physical stunts that are now known as body tricks.

Since these days of early hip hop, it has now become one of the most popular contemporary genres and has massive implications both culturally and politically. This has now infiltrated every part of our lives, from daily language and fashion to music and dance, advertisement, and commerce.

Copyright
Copyright is the legal right that protects the originator of a piece of art, across a number of different popular medias for a fixed period. Copyright puts a stamp down and privatises the marketplace of ideas, in a term that is often referred to as ‘intellectual property’. The marketplace of ideas is, by its nature, a grey area for enforcing law, this has come with much discussion and controversy through the years of its enforcement. Free market serves an ethos whereby the best ideas ultimately prevail; however, these are then ‘valued’ more both figuratively and, because of copyright law, literally.

As content within the realm of media begun increasingly accessible and interchangeable, the rising popularity of the internet, this issue became even more relevant than ever. People on the ‘copyleft‘ believe that the public domain and process of taking content and remixing is a creative endeavour within itself and should be protected for its contribution to the arts industry. However, members of the ‘copyright‘ would counter this argument by saying that copyright is a disservice to ‘intellectual property’ and the value of one’s unique ideas.

The history and evolution of copyright laws
The Law Of Copyright has a deep, embedded institutionalised legal history. This dates as far back as 1710, with the Statue of Anne. Which provided the first legislation to protect copyrights. It was not until 1886 that the Berne International Copyright Convention, which established protection for writers among the countries who signed the agreement, that the first law to protect copyrights was passed.

With technologies advancing and new emerging art forms, came a further act. The US Copyright Act (1909) receives its third major amendment. More categories of protected works (effectively, all works of authorship) are now included more than ever before. The renewal period has also been increased from 14 to 28 years, bringing the total protection period to 56 years. Furthermore, the 1998 Copyright Term Extension Act extended these terms to the author's lifetime plus 70 years, and to 120 years after creation or 95 years after publication for works of corporate authorship, whichever end is earlier.

Essentially, Copyright laws became gradually more and more in support of the originators or creators, protecting intellectual property, and further from the grasp of the public domain.

Ownership
Along the way, if the owners work was used anywhere else, the owner of that piece of work would be allowed to make profit from this, as well as getting credited for their work.

In effect, to qualify for work to be declared as copyright, it has to meet requirements of lacking originality. Some on the ‘copyleft’ side, make the argument that copyright has gone too far and isn’t even to protect artists anymore put to protect profits. A popular case study of this is one of a Daycare that was sued by Disney corporation as it had Disney characters painted on the wall. This caused major discussions around the ethics of copyright.

Photo manipulation and ethical journalism
A photograph has the potential to communicate with audiences on a personal level, but this ability comes with ethical responsibilities. Photo manipulation can have an affect on the landscape and legitimacy of journalism and creates caution around the reality of journalism, especially with the rise of ‘fake news’.

Academic researchers and trade-press writers generally regard digital photo manipulation as an issue of individual-level decision-making that deviates from a set of ethical principles. The collective shared values of journalists include accuracy, balance, relevance, and completeness. Journalists have been scrutinised for the public by not upholding these values and damaging trust between true news and the public.

Technical progress has made photography more aesthetically pleasing, but it has also created ethical issues by favouring a cosmetic approach over fostering authenticity in the photographer's attitude. The reputation of photojournalism has been eroding in the public domain as a result of a rise in cases of photo manipulation. However, it is worth noting that photo manipulation dates back to the beginning of photography. Photo manipulation was often pursued for political motivation by powerful leaders, and they successfully used it to improve their heroic status in public opinion, as shown by cases from the early days of photo manipulation.

An example of this is this picture of Abraham Lincoln. (See image 1). The iconic photo of Abraham Lincoln is credited with being the first manipulated photograph ever made. The face of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and the body of Southern politician John Calhoun were combined to create this image. This process became a lot more efficient and simple with the rise of digital technologies that made this practise more notorious.

Elastography
Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) is a rapidly evolving technology for determining the mechanical properties of tissue in a quantitative manner. The technology can be thought of as an imaging-based version of palpation, which is widely used by doctors to diagnose and characterise diseases. The effectiveness of palpation as a diagnostic procedure is focused on the fact that disease processes such as cancer, inflammation, and fibrosis alter the mechanical properties of tissues dramatically. MRE uses a special magnetic resonance imaging method to measure the transmission of mechanical waves through tissue to collect data about tissue stiffness. The method consists of three steps: 1, creating shear waves in the tissue, 2, acquiring MR images illustrating the propagation of the induced shear waves, and 3, processing the shear wave images to produce quantitative maps of tissue stiffness, known as elastograms.

The data from the m-mode scan was used to detect movement in these methods. By 1988, researchers at the University of Rochester had developed a device that tracked tissue movement and generated stiffness-based images using modified colour Doppler. The technique, known as sonoelasticity imaging, enabled researchers to visualise stiff lesions in the prostate gland and other organs as dark areas against a green backdrop of moving tissue.

The lesion appears dark against a colour backdrop of vibrating tissue, however the image is moderately low resolution and requires an inconvenient external vibratory device to induce the tissue motion. More recently, it was discovered that adding a second vibration source with a slightly different frequency generated a changing interference pattern known as "crawling waves," which could be used to estimate local shear wave velocity and tissue stiffness.