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According to ancient and medieval science, aether (αἰθήρ aithēr ), also spelled æther or ether, also called quintessence, is the material that fills the region of the universe above the terrestrial sphere. The concept of aether was used in several theories to explain several natural phenomena, such as the traveling of light and gravity. In the late 19th century, physicists postulated that aether permeated all throughout space, providing a medium through which light could travel in a vacuum, but evidence for the presence of such a medium was not found in the Michelson–Morley experiment.

Mythological origins
The word αἰθήρ (aithēr) in Homeric Greek means "pure, fresh air" or "clear sky". In Greek mythology, it was thought to be the pure essence that the gods breathed, filling the space where they lived, analogous to the air breathed by mortals. It is also personified as a deity, Aether, the son of Erebus and Nyx in traditional Greek mythology. Aether is related to αἴθω "to incinerate", and intransitive "to burn, to shine" (related is the name Aithiopes (Ethiopians; see Aethiopia), meaning "people with a burnt (black) visage"). See also Empyrean.

Fifth element
Special Relativity

Ben Ito

2-28-2016

This paper will analyze Einstein's special relativity.

1. Introduction

Einstein's special relativity is supporting the wave theory of light. Huygens (1690) describes the propagation of light using waves formed by the motion of an Ethereal matter (Huygens, p. 11). Fresnel (1819) represents diffraction using interfering light-waves created by the vibration of an elastic fluid (Fresnel, 43) yet diffraction forms in vacuum, that is void of matter; consequently, Maxwell's (1864) electromagnetic theory of light, based on Faraday's induction effect, was introduced since induction forms in vacuum but Faraday's induction effect is not luminous. Poynting (1884) derives an electromagnetic energy equation of light (Poynting, p. 358) to justify Maxwell's theory but Poynting's current wire is not luminous. Hertz (1887) supports Maxwell's theory but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction effect is also not an ionization effect. Planck (1901) and Einstein (1905) support Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light using the blackbody radiation effect and Boltzmann's entropy but the blackbody radiation effect emits electrons and Boltzmann's entropy is not luminous (Planck, Intro & Part 1), (Einstein1, § § 4 & 6).

Michelson (1881) tests for the existence of Fresnel's optical ether (Michelson, p. 120), composed of matter, but the result was negative; consequently, Lorentz (1899) describes an electromagnetic aether using Maxwell's equations (Lorentz, § 3), and reverses the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter (Lorentz, § 9). In Einstein's (1905) special relativity, Einstein states the luminiferous ether is superfluous then alters the dimensions of Maxwell's equations to justify light propagating in vacuum but altering the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous or that the wave theory of light is based on an optical ether, composed of matter. In 1910, Einstein describes an electromagnetic ether that forms light waves in vacuum. In Einstein's paper "Relativity: Special and General Theory" (1917), Einstein uses the reversal of the negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment, based on Lorentz's transformation, to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter.

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2. Transformation

In Einstein's paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (1905), Einstein uses Maxwell's equations,

dX/dt = dN/dy - dM/dz.................................................1

dY/dt = dL/dz - dN/dx..................................................2

dZ/dt = dM/dx - dL/dy..................................................3

....................................

dL/dt = dY/dz - dZ/dy...................................................4

dM/dt = dZ/dx - dX/dz..................................................5

dN/dt = dX/dy - dY/dx..................................................6

where (X,Y,Z) denotes the vector of the electric force, and (L,M,N) that of the magnetic force." (Einstein2, § 6).

β = 1/(1 - v1/c1)1/2 ......................................................7

Equation 7 is used to alter the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations,

"X' = X............................ L' = L.....................................8a,b

Y' = β[Y - (v/c)N]............. M'= β[M + (v/c)Z]..................9a,b

Z' = β[Z + (v/c)M],.............N' = β[N - (v/c)Y]".................10a,b

(Einstein2, § 6). Altering the coordinates system, of Maxwell's equations, does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous or that the wave theory of light is based on light waves formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter, which does not exist in vacuum. Also, Maxwell's equations represent a disturbance within a three dimensional volume that produces a longitudinal wave that conflicts with Maxwell's electromagnetic transverse waves (Maxwell, Part VI).

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3. Conclusion

The wave theory of light is based on an optical ether, composed of matter, yet the aether does not exist (vacuum).

Einstein is attempting to structurally unite Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter, with Maxwell's electromagnetic field using an energy equation Eo = mc2 but the inertial (m) of Einstein's energy equation is massless since Eo represents the energy of an electromagnetic photon which proves Einstein's structural unification of Maxwell's electromagnetic field with Fresnel's ether is physically invalid.

Einstein's special relativity is supporting the wave theory of light but special relativity originates from Lorentz's transformation of Maxwell's equations (Lorentz, § 3) but altering the dimensions of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous, nor is induction an ionization effect which proves Einstein's special relativity is physically invalid.

Einstein1, Albert. On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light. Annalen der Physik. 17:132. 1905. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_a_Heuristic_Point_of_View_about_the_Creation_and_Conversion_of_Light

Einstein2, Albert. On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. Annalen der Physik. 17:891-921. 1905. https://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/

Einstein3, Albert. The Principle of Relativity and its Consequences in Modern Physics. 1910. http://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/vol3-trans/131

Einstein4, Albert. Relativity: Special and General Theory. Brauschweig. 1917. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Relativity:_The_Special_and_General_Theory

Fresnel, Augustin. Memorie su la Diffraction de la Lumiere. French Academy of Science. 1819.

Hertz, Heinrich. Annalen der Physik. 1887.

Huygens, Christiann. Treatise on Light. Translated by Silvanus P. Thompson. French Academy of Science. 1690. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/14725/14725-h/14725-h.htm

Lorentz, Hendrik. Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems. Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 1:427-442. 1899. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Simplified_Theory_of_Electrical_and_Optical_Phenomena_in_Moving_Systems

Maxwell, James. Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. Royal Society Transactions. Vol. CLV. 1864.http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/155/459

Poynting, John. The Transfer of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 175:343-361. 1884. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_the_Transfer_of_Energy_in_the_Electromagnetic_Field

Judi Bari ....................................................................... Koran

β = 1/(1 - v2/c2)1/2............................................................46

Applying equation 46 to the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations,

"X' = X............................ L' = L......................................47a,b

Y' = β[Y - (v/c)N]............. M'= β[M + (v/c)Z]....................48a,b

Z' = β[Z + (v/c)M],.............N' = β[N - (v/c)Y]"..................49a,b

(Einstein2, § 6). Altering the coordinates system (inertial frame), of Maxwell's equations, does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, the manipulation of the coordinate system, of Maxwell's equations, cannot be used to justify light propagating in vacuum. Also, the electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light cannot be derived using Maxwell's equations (equ 85 - 111) since Maxwell's equations represent a disturbance within a three dimensional volume that produces a spherical wave which forms a longitudinal wave that conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves.

In Plato's Timaeus (58d) speaking about air, Plato mentions that "there is the most translucent kind which is called by the name of aether (αίθηρ)". but otherwise he adopted the classical system of four elements. Aristotle, who had been Plato's student at the Akademia, agreed on this point with his former mentor, emphasizing additionally that fire sometimes has been mistaken for aether. However, in his Book On the Heavens he introduced a new "first" element to the system of the classical elements of Ionian philosophy. He noted that the four terrestrial classical elements were subject to change and naturally moved linearly. The first element however, located in the celestial regions and heavenly bodies, moved circularly and had none of the qualities the terrestrial classical elements had. It was neither hot nor cold, neither wet nor dry. With this addition the system of elements was extended to five and later commentators started referring to the new first one as the fifth and also called it aether, a word that Aristotle had not used.

Aether did not follow Aristotelian physics either. Aether was also incapable of motion of quality or motion of quantity. Aether was only capable of local motion. Aether naturally moved in circles, and had no contrary, or unnatural, motion. Aristotle also noted that crystalline spheres made of aether held the celestial bodies. The idea of crystalline spheres and natural circular motion of aether led to Aristotle's explanation of the observed orbits of stars and planets in perfectly circular motion in crystalline aether.

Medieval scholastic philosophers granted aether changes of density, in which the bodies of the planets were considered to be more dense than the medium which filled the rest of the universe. Robert Fludd stated that the aether was of the character that it was "subtler than light". Fludd cites the 3rd-century view of Plotinus, concerning the aether as penetrative and non-material. See also Arche.

Quintessence
Quintessence is the Latinate name of the fifth element used by medieval alchemists for a medium similar or identical to that thought to make up the heavenly bodies. It was noted that there was very little presence of quintessence within the terrestrial sphere. Due to the low presence of quintessence, earth could be affected by what takes place within the heavenly bodies. This theory was developed in the 14th century text The testament of Lullius, attributed to Ramon Llull. The use of quintessence became popular within medieval alchemy. Quintessence stemmed from the medieval elemental system, which consisted of the four classical elements, and aether, or quintessence, in addition to two chemical elements representing metals: sulphur, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties.

This elemental system spread rapidly throughout all of Europe and became popular with alchemists, especially in medicinal alchemy. Medicinal alchemy then sought to isolate quintessence and incorporate it within medicine and elixirs. Due to quintessence's pure and heavenly quality, it was thought that through consumption one may rid oneself of any impurities or illnesses. In The book of Quintessence, a 15th-century English translation of a continental text, quintessence was used as a medicine for many of man's illnesses. A process given for the creation of quintessence is distillation of alcohol seven times. Over the years, the term quintessence has become synonymous with elixirs, medicinal alchemy, and the philosopher's stone itself.

Legacy
With the 18th century physics developments physical models known as "aether theories" made use of a similar concept for the explanation of the propagation of electromagnetic and gravitational forces. As early as the 1670s, Newton used the idea of aether to help match observations to strict mechanical rules of his physics. However, the early modern aether had little in common with the aether of classical elements from which the name was borrowed. These aether theories are considered to be scientifically obsolete, as the development of special relativity showed that Maxwell's equations do not require the aether for the transmission of these forces. However, Einstein himself noted that his own model which replaced these theories could itself be thought of as an aether, as it implied that the empty space between objects had its own physical properties.

Despite the early modern aether models being superseded by general relativity, occasionally some physicists have attempted to reintroduce the concept of aether in an attempt to address perceived deficiencies in current physical models. One proposed model of dark energy has been named "quintessence" by its proponents, in honor of the classical element. This idea relates to the hypothecial form of dark energy postulated as an explanation of observations of an accelerating universe. It has also been called a fifth fundamental force.

Aether and light
The motion of light was a long-standing investigation in physics for hundreds of years before the 20th century. The use of aether to describe this motion was popular during the 17th and 18th centuries, including a theory proposed by the less well-known Johann Bernoulli, who was recognized in 1736 with the prize of the French Academy. In his theory, all space is permeated by aether containing "excessively small whirlpools." These whirlpools allow for aether to have a certain elasticity, transmitting vibrations from the corpuscular packets of light as they travel through.

This theory of luminiferous aether would influence the wave theory of light proposed by Christiaan Huygens, in which light traveled in the form of longitudinal waves via an "omnipresent, perfectly elastic medium having zero density, called aether". At the time, it was thought that in order for light to travel through a vacuum, there must have been a medium filling the void through which it could propagate, as sound through air or ripples in a pool. Later, when it was proved that the nature of light wave is transverse instead of longitudinal, Huygens' theory was replaced by subsequent theories proposed by Maxwell, Einstein and de Broglie, which rejected the existence and necessity of aether to explain the various optical phenomena. These theories were supported by the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment in which evidence for the presence of aether was conclusively absent. The results of the experiment influenced many physicists of the time and contributed to the eventual development of Einstein's theory of special relativity.

Aether and gravitation
Aether has been used in various gravitational theories as a medium to help explain gravitation and what causes it. It was used in one of Sir Isaac Newton's first published theories of gravitation, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (the Principia). He based the whole description of planetary motions on a theoretical law of dynamic interactions. He renounced standing attempts at accounting for this particular form of interaction between distant bodies by introducing a mechanism of propagation through an intervening medium. He calls this intervening medium aether. In his aether model, Newton describes aether as a medium that "flows" continually downward toward the Earth's surface and is partially absorbed and partially diffused. This "circulation" of aether is what he associated the force of gravity with to help explain the action of gravity in a non-mechanical fashion. This theory described different aether densities, creating an aether density gradient. His theory also explains that aether was dense within objects and rare without them. As particles of denser aether interacted with the rare aether they were attracted back to the dense aether much like cooling vapors of water are attracted back to each other to form water. In the Principia he attempts to explain the elasticity and movement of aether by relating aether to his static model of fluids. This elastic interaction is what caused the pull of gravity to take place, according to this early theory, and allowed an explanation for action at a distance instead of action through direct contact. Newton also explained this changing rarity and density of aether in his letter to Robert Boyle in 1679. He illustrated aether and its field around objects in this letter as well and used this as a way to inform Robert Boyle about his theory. Although Newton eventually changed his theory of gravitation to one involving force and the laws of motion, his starting point for the modern understanding and explanation of gravity came from his original aether model on gravitation.