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PLAN: Delete ‘Effects on Environment’ section. Add ‘Effects on Environment’ Section

Effects on Environment

Brevetoxins are a group of neurotoxic compounds released by K. brevis. At high concentration these brevetoxins can be fatal to fish, marine mammals, and birds[19][20]. Brevetoxis also pose a threat to corals [21].

Large nearshore fish fatalities are caused by red-tide blooms[22]. Shorebirds can also get infected with brevetoxins by consuming their fish prey[23]. Thus, red-tide blooms can have major level effects impacting the whole ecosystem. Additionally infected fish and shellfish pose a threat to the fishing industry and economy[20][22].

K. brevis red tides have also been found to be a significant factor in the mortality of  multiple species of sea turtles[24]. Specifically Kemp's ridleys, loggerheads, green turtles, and hawksbills, particularly along the west Florida coast [24]. Since red tide is a major cause of stranded sea turtles, this underscores the need to address this threat in the management of these endangered species specifically [24].

K. brevis blooms pose other lethal health risks to marine animals like manatees. Extended occurrences of red tide blooms in the Gulf of Mexico have been associated with substantial instances of mortality in manatee populations [25]. Additionally brevetoxins can lower manatee’s immune systems making them more at risk for other diseases [25]. Additionally, brevetoxin has been correlated with oxidative stress in manatees [25].

Overall brevetoxins have grave effects on wildlife, and the multitude and compounded effects on entire marine ecosystems are not yet fully understood.

References:

19. Hoagland, Porter, Di Jin, Lara Y. Polansky, Barbara Kirkpatrick, Gary Kirkpatrick, Lora E. Fleming, Andrew Reich, Sharon M. Watkins, Steven G. Ullmann, and Lorraine C. Backer. “The Costs of Respiratory Illnesses Arising from Florida Gulf Coast            Karenia Brevis            Blooms.” Environmental Health Perspectives 117, no. 8 (2009): 1239–43. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900645.

20. Vilas, Daniel, Joe Buszowski, Skyler Sagarese, Jeroen Steenbeek, Zach Siders, and David Chagaris. “Evaluating Red Tide Effects on the West Florida Shelf Using a Spatiotemporal Ecosystem Modeling Framework.” Scientific Reports 13, no. 1 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29327-z.

21. Reynolds, David A., Mi-Jeong Yoo, Danielle L. Dixson, and Cliff Ross. “Exposure to the Florida Red Tide Dinoflagellate, Karenia Brevis, and Its Associated Brevetoxins Induces Ecophysiological and Proteomic Alterations in Porites Astreoides.” PLOS ONE 15, no. 2 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228414.

22. Gannon, DP, EJ Berens McCabe, SA Camilleri, JG Gannon, MK Brueggen, AA Barleycorn, VI Palubok, GJ Kirkpatrick, and RS Wells. “Effects of Karenia Brevis Harmful Algal Blooms on Nearshore Fish Communities in Southwest Florida.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 378 (2009): 171–86. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07853.

23. Deventer, Michelle van, Karen Atwood, Gabriel A. Vargo, Leanne J. Flewelling, Jan H. Landsberg, Jerome P. Naar, and Danielle Stanek. “Karenia Brevis Red Tides and Brevetoxin-Contaminated Fish: A High Risk Factor for Florida’s Scavenging Shorebirds?” Botanica Marina 55, no. 1 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1515/bot.2011.122.

24. Foley, AM, BA Stacy, P Schueller, LJ Flewelling, B Schroeder, K Minch, DA Fauquier, et al. “Assessing Karenia Brevis Red Tide as a Mortality Factor of Sea Turtles in Florida, USA.” Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 132, no. 2 (2019): 109–24. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao03308.

25. Walsh, Catherine J., Matthew Butawan, Jennifer Yordy, Ray Ball, Leanne Flewelling, Martine de Wit, and Robert K. Bonde. “Sublethal Red Tide Toxin Exposure in Free-Ranging Manatees (Trichechus Manatus) Affects the Immune System through Reduced Lymphocyte Proliferation Responses, Inflammation, and Oxidative Stress.” Aquatic Toxicology 161 (2015): 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.01.019.

EDITED WIKIPEDIA ON 1:24 pm nov 17th