User:FuturePerspective/sandbox

=Linda B. Smith= Linda B. Smith (born Linda Brawn; December 9, 1951) is an American professor of psychology, research scientist and writer. Smith earned her Ph.D. from the University of Pennsylvania in 1977. She is currently chancellor's professor of psychological and brain sciences at Indiana University where she conducts research on cognitive developmental processes and mechanisms of change. Smith is also a distinguished professor who has authored (or co-authored) more than 130 publications.

Biography
Born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire,Smith grew up in an intellectually stimulating home. She went to Portsmouth High School and graduated in 1969. Smith then went to the College of Engineering at Northeastern University and became primarily interested in contributing to the end of the Viet Nam War. During her two years at Northwestern Smith took her first psychology course from professor B. Warren. She then married Maurice E. Smith at age 19 and transferred to the University of Wisconsin-Madison where she became interested in the psychology of perception.

Smith started her bachelors education at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1971. During her undergraduate education she changed her major to psychology after taking Honours Experimental Psychology from William Epstein on research on perception. In her senior year at Wisconsin, Smith did her thesis on adaptation to optical tilt under Sheldon Ebenhotz. Smith took only one course on development at Wisconsin but the professor Francis Graham, became an influence to continue her graduate education at the University of Pennsylvania.

Smith's graduate work started in 1973 at the University of Pennsylvania. Her intention was to study adult perception and she joined several influential seminars where both faculty and students had engaging discussions. In one conversation with the professor Deborah Kemler, Smith learned about her experience with research on learning which led to Smith's first year project on selective attention in young children and close work with Kemler over the following years. Ultimately, it led to Smith's becoming a developmental psychologist in 1977 after completing her dissertation on the experiential status of dimension in children and adults.

Shape Bias
Smith's initial graduate work on selective attention began after reading Garner's The Processing of Information and Structure which opened the possibility that selective attention may be fundamentally changed by the experience of relations between objects during development. This led to series of studies by Smith and Kemler in which they were able to show that young children naturally relate objects by perceived overall similarities some which come from the inability to pay attention to differences in objects on a single dimension. In an early experiment Smith, Kemler and Afronfreed (1975) found that this inability to notice differences in objects comes in part from the difficulty that young children have with ignoring distracting information. In a landmark study, Smith and Kemler (1977) demonstrated that children in kindergarten, unlike those in fifth-grade, generally perceive size and brightness as a unified aspect of objects when classifying them. Her research thus clearly indicated that children when learning to classify new objects (eg. house, book, table),tend to generalize nouns by focusing on shape instead of color or texture. Smith, Landau, and Jones (1988) named this tendency the shape bias.

Smith now as a professor at Indiana University-Bloomington, continued to work on the shape bias as it related to children's development of relational knowledge and language. In a notable study, Smith, Landau and Jones (1988) found that children tend to generalize names of new objects based on their similarity in shape but this shape bias tends to come from the development of language rather than perception. Smith then went on to develop a mathematical model in 1989 which indicates how young children as compared to older children, tend to make classifications of objects by similarity more than by dimension. Smith further elaborates on this theory in From global similarities to kinds of similarities: The construction of dimensions in development with her analysis and framework to clearly explain a developmental trend in children's cognitive processing: from overall similarities to analytic similarities in dimensional structures.

From global similarities to kinds of similarities: The construction of dimensions in development is a book chapter in Similiarity and Analogical Reasoning where Smith focuses on specific perceptual similarities that emerge during children’s development. According to Smith (1989), children learn to categorize by perceiving differences in objects but this ability is initially very limited. The development of this relational knowledge is highly dependent on context, and the capacity for children to classify objects (e.g. by size and color) requires the learning of relational patterns that are initially highly concrete and one-dimensional (e.g. a circle that is bigger than another). However, as time passes, children develop a system of verbal relational knowledge which allows them to make comparisons that are more complex. Such relationships between objects require a higher capacity for abstracting specific information from context rich environments. Children thus, through the use of relational labels become capable of perceiving differences in multidimensional objects and move from more concrete and strong similarities to more abstract and complex relations.

Dynamic Systems Theory
Smith’s extended experience with complex and specific developmental processes then fuse in her book A dynamic systems approach to development: Applications. This book is divided into two main sections. The first section gives a general explanation of the principles of dynamic systems and how they apply to pattern formation in biological organisms over their lifetime. It then focuses on how this pattern relate to the development of motor skills in infants and children. The second part extends the application of dynamic principles to other developmental domains such as action, behaviour, and cognition. In A dynamic systems approach to development: Applications Smith integrates previous research on children and how it can be explained from a dynamic systems perspective to argue about the potential for this framework to further the understanding of developmental processes.

Smith along with Esther Thelen continue working on developing this theoretical framework in A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action to addresses three main challenges in developmental psychology. First, the challenge of finding the origin of new physical and cognitive functions such as the ability to walk and speak. According to the book, such functions emerge from underlying physiological and psychological systems that are interactive, continuous (non-ending), and non-linear (or predetermined).Second, the challenge of understanding the causes for variability in behaviours that appears in different contexts. Smith and Thelen argue that this variability comes from a soft-wired rather than hard-wired behaviours that interact dynamically with the environment and are constant during development. Their version of the dynamic systems theory in A dynamic systems approach to the development of cognition and action also takes into account the diverse routes that children can take to reach the same cognitive developmental state such as the ability to form words. Specially, when considering their findings on the dissimilarity in speed of cognitive development between children but the similarity of ages at which children tend to develop these functions. Lastly, Smith and Thelen address the challenge in finding an objective methodology for research on developmental processes and provide examples of empirical research.

Smith and Thelen version of dynamic systems theory is further explained in Dynamic systems theories a chapter in Theoretical models of human development. Their version which they named dynamic systems theory comes from the study of psychology, biology, and non-linear systems in physics and mathematics. According to Smith and Thelen, dynamic systems theory is basically the idea that changes in dynamic systems (e.g. biological, psychological) occur by systemically interrelated events that can be represented through specific mathematical equations. Moreover, they argue that there are two key components of a dynamic systems: First, development can only be understood as the multiple, mutual, and continuous interaction of all the levels of the developing system, from the molecular to the cultural and second, development can only be understood as nested processes that unfold over many timescales from milliseconds to years. Smith and Thelen argue that dynamic systems theory can be applied to other developmental ages and domains of development.

Current Research & Support
The shape bias in children’s word learning 1995 –2016

''National Institutes of Health/National Institute Of Child Health And Human Development '' This project investigates the origins and nature of children’s attention to shape in naming tasks. This research concentrates on the developmental period between 12 and 24 months and particularly the acceleration in new object name acquisitions that typically occurs at around 24 months. A substantial portion of the research involves a comparison of typically developing and late talking children.

Cross-Situational Statistical Word Learning 2007 - 2013

''National Institutes of Health/National Institute of Child Health and Human Development '' This project investigates infants learning of word-referent mappings and the use of cross word statistics to hone in on these mappings even in the face of the referential ambiguity characteristic of real world learning contexts.

Making Sense of Concrete Models for Mathematics 2008-2011

This research examines how children’s direct contact and exact movements with math manipulatives (small blocks that may be assembled into ones, tens, hundreds) may be related to their learning about place-holders and carrying operations in addition and subtraction.

Measuring Active Vision in Toddlers and Young Children 2007-2009

National Institutes of Health

This research investicated active vision in children 10 to 36 months of age by measuring the visual input from the first person view. This was done by asking the child to wear a headband with a small camera that records the visual information as the child moves and engages in play with toys. In addition, sensors were placed on the child’s head, shoulders and hands to more precisely measure the coupling of visual input and action.

A Cross-Linguistic Study of Nominal Category Formation 2003-2008

National Institutes of Health

This research investigated English-speaking and Japanese-speaking children’s noun learning. It specifically Studied the regularities that characterize early lexicons and the role they play in category formation.

Lasting Impression
Smith’s work is a “significant contemporary contribution to the theoretical foundations of human cognition” as mentioned in the annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society held in Japan in August 2012. She is also the second woman to receive the Rumelhart Prize. Smith’s work on the shape bias has extended its previous findings to include the origin of the shape bias, functionality and consequences in a developing system. Furthermore, Smith’s most significant contribution is a paradigm shift from the scientific idea that motor functions were attained as the brain developed or neuromaturational theory; to a view that both physical and psychological parts of a biological system work dynamically to produce more complex actions including motors skill (dynamic systems theory). According to Nick Chater, associate dean at the University of Warwick and chair of the Rumelhart Prize committee, Smith has also made “ground-breaking” contributions on the understanding of perception and language.

Awards and Honors

 * 1982            Phi Beta Kappa (Lilly Post-doctoral Teaching Fellow-Indiana University


 * 1984            James McKeen Cattell Fund Sabbatical Award


 * 1984-1989       Research Career Development Award – NICHD


 * 1985 Early      Career Contribution, American Psychological Association


 * 1990, 1991, 1992 Honors Faculty Fellow, Indiana University


 * 1993-1994       Lilly Faculty Open Fellowship


 * 1997            Sonneborn Award


 * 1997            Chancellor’s Professor


 * 2006            Society of Experimental Psychologists


 * 2007            American Academy of Arts and Sciences


 * 2007            Fellow APS


 * 2007            Fellow Cognitive Science


 * 2008            Distinguished Professor


 * 2009            Distinguished Cognitive Scientist Award, UC-Merced,


 * 2009            Distinguished Scholar Award, Office of Women’s Affairs, Indiana University,


 * 2013            Rumelhart Prize

Notable Publications (Cited by >100)
=External Links= Cognitive Development Lab at Indiana University

Neurotree