User:Fyddlestix/Notes1

 Literature to Review for Sexism (on conscription): 

Clatterbaugh, Contemporary Perspectives on Masculinity, Men, Women, and Politics in Modern Society

Goldstein, War and Gender

Kerber, No Constitutional Right to be Ladies

Clatterbaugh in May et al, Rethinking Masculinity: Philosophical Explorations in Light of Feminism

Sexism on Conscription:

I still feel that the above text gives undue weight, and is misleading more generally. I've already related above that I'm uncomfortable citing/quoting Benetar without giving at least equal weight to his (many) critics, who reject the notion that male-only conscription can be considered sexist against men, but is rather a means of denying women access to "first class" citizenship. I also think it's misleading to quote Altinay's statement that "given equal suffrage rights, there is no other citizenship practice that differentiates as radically between men and women as compulsory male conscription," especially when it's in the same paragraph as a quote from Benetar, when Altinay's actual argument is far more complex than that: namely, that "when it is only men who become soldiers, military service inevitably defines male citizenship and masculinity in an opposition to female citizenship and femininity. Through continuous, compulsory and universal peacetime military service, masculinity, first class citizenship, the state, and the military are interwoven as as parts of an intricate whole." She argues (on same page that the quote in the proposed draft comes from) that "by bringing male citizens together in the barracks and separating them from female citizens, lawmakers created a major source of gender difference that was defined and administrated by the state" (emphasis in original). If you actually read that chapter, of her book, Altinay's is very clearly framing conscription as a patriarchal institution - and I feel strongly that it's misleading to quote her right after quoting Benetar without explicitly noting that.

New Citations for "Primarily Women" in Sexism


 * The Encyclopedia Britannica. (Online, current version). First sentence defines sexism as "prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls."
 * The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology (2006). States clearly that "The term is most generally used to describe the ways in which women have been depicted in derogatory and demeaning ways by a particular culture, the mass media (see mass media and communications), or particular social institutions."
 * The Collins Dictionary of Sociology (2000). Clearly defines sexism as "any devaluation or denigration of women or men, but particularly women, which is embodied in institutions and social relationships, e.g. the sexist use of language, such as the male personal pronoun, ‘he’, to refer to men and women"
 * Oxford English Dictionary (3rd Ed, 2008). Clearly defines sexism as "prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex."
 * The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology (2000) goes even further, directly stating that: "in every known society where gender inequality exists, males are privileged over females."
 * The Encyclopedia of Political Science (SAGE, 2013). First sentence: "Sexism is discrimination, domination, and oppression based on sex. Both men and women can experience sexism, but sexism against women is more pervasive. The word sexism is commonly associated with assumptions about female physical and psychological inferiority and weakness, and male superiority and strength."
 * The Encyclopedia of Gender and Society (SAGE, 2009). First sentence: "Sexism usually refers to prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls."
 * The Oxford Dictionary of English (3rd Ed, 2010). Defines it as: "prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex."
 * The International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (McMillan, 2008). States clearly that "Sexism against women pervades all areas of their lives, public and private, legal and economic, educational and social, religious and psychological, and gender relations in particular."  This source does note that "Some scholars find that at the beginning of the twenty-first century, sexism ceased to be an exclusively female problem and sexist attitudes against men are on the rise," but the article clearly acknowledges that sexism against women has long been the norm, and that it at least was an "exclusively female problem" until recently.
 * The Oxford Dictionary of Sociology (3rd Ed, 2009). States very clearly that "Normally, sex discrimination operates against women and in favor of men (as, for example, in the case of access to privileged occupational positions), however the obverse is not entirely unknown."
 * The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics (2009). Defines sexism as "the practice of domination of women."
 * The Encyclopedia of Race & Racism (McMillan, 2008). Defines sexism as "Sexism consists of a set of attitudes, beliefs, and practices that assume that women are naturally inferior to men in a variety of ways and that use this alleged natural inferiority to promote, protect, and enforce male privilege and deny women full participation in society."
 * The Palgrave Macmillan Dictionary of Political Thought (2007). First sentence: "Either sex may be the object of sexist attitudes (in sense 2.); however, it is commonly held that, in developed societies, women have been the usual victims."

Hope Landrine & Elizabeth A. Klonoff. ''Discrimination Against Women: Prevalence, Consequences, Remedies. SAGE, 1997.
 * "Major findings" were that "Discrimination against women is rampant in America, insofar as 99% of women reported being discriminated against in some form or another." Book provides "clear scientific proof of the frequency and impact of sexims on women." "Numerous scientific studies have demonstrated that discrimination against women in America persists, despite the law, and is widespread.  Such discrimination has been documented unambiguously in most areas of life, ranging from how women versus men are treated in face-to-face interactions (Lott, 1987, 1989) to the sexual harassment of women students and faculty (Paludi, 1990), the the unequal treatment of women in employment, housing, and health and social services (Feagin and Feagin, 1978; Kreiger, 1990). "Discrimination against women is rampant on the eve of the 21st Century, irrespective of women's social class, age, ethnicity or education."  p. xii, 197.

Virginia Valian, Why So Slow, the Advancement of Women. MIT Press, 1998.
 * Central argument of the book is that "a set of implicit, or non conscious hypotheses about sex differences plays a central role in shaping men's and women's professional lives. These hypotheses, which I call gender schemas, affect our expectations of men and women, our evaluations of their work, and their performance as professionals."  "The most important consequence for professional life is that men are consistently overrated, while women are underrated.  Whatever emphasizes a man's gender gives him a small advantage, a plus mark.  Whatever accentuates a woman's gender results in a small loss for her, a minus mark."  p 2.

Nathanson and Young Michael Kimmel, Angry White Men: American Masculinity at the End of an Era. nathanson and young = "apallingly bad history." analysis of is a "misreading," a "heaping does of dramatic misreading of texts, with no foundational understanding of how texts are actually experienced by consumers, and more than a pinch of conspiratorial hysteria." p 132. Quotes David Gilmore, who says that misandry refers "not to the hatred of men as men, but to the hatred of men's traditional male role, the obnoxious manly pose, a culture of machismo; that is, to an adopted sexual ideology," rather than to "some form of hatred of men or the establishment of the institutional apparatus by which to oppress them. p 132.

Skocpol, "Safeguarding the "mothers of the race" in Protecting Soldiers and Mothers.

Sharon Hartman Strom, Women's Rights. Greenwood, 2003.

"From the founding of the nation under the Constitution in 1789, male citizenship and certain obligations were assumed to go hand in hand. Men were to represent dependents and wives in the courtroom and in government, to carry the onerous duty of serving on juries, and in times of war, to be drafted into the armed forces.  Women, by virtue of their supposedly more delicate physical constitutions, susceptibility to rape and assault, and sole responsibility for childbearing, were to be protected from these obligations.  In its beneficence and respect for womanhood, then, the government protected women from conflict on the battlefield, in the coatroom, in the legislature, and at the polling place.  Because women did not serve their country as soldiers, they were not, as any number of social conservatives would repeat, therefore entitled to full rights as cities.  voting was a right balanced by obligations, obligations that women did not have. This quid pro quo argument was usually accompanied by more subjective assertions having to do with sexual difference." "Women's rights activists whave countered these conservative arguments with demands for women's liberation from dependency and their full incorporation into the body politic and the economy. They have assured ciritcs that women are ready to assume the obligations of voting, supporting families, holding political office, serving on juries, and, in modern times - joining the military - and that society will not fall apart as a result."

"Women's participation in the armed forces brings women's rights and obligations as citizens full cirticle and highlights Americans' inability to settle on one approach to women's rights." 70s, start of allowing enlisted women: "many Americans miworried that women might end up being drafted or serving in combat." this was a major reason for rejection of the ERA. 1979, DOD urged Congress to abolish restrictions on women in combat, Carter suggested that both women and men should be registered for the draft in 1980. Conservative opposition nixed this idea.

"Ideas about sexual difference continue to make women's military service ocntoversial. Many women, both conservative and liberal, believe that women are inherently more peaceful than men.  It is therefore a betrayal of women's human natures to force them to fight in war.  Oppotnents of women in the military believe women make inherently bad soldiers because they are overly sentimental an d physically weaker than men and that their sexual presence will undermine morale, an argument also make about homosexuals.  Historians of rape observe that men in conquering armies often rape enemy women; women in the armed services would be particularly vulnerable. Meanwhile, young women enlist int eh armed services in ever-greater numbers." 1-11

LORBER, 2005, Gender Inequality: Feminist Theories and Politics. Roxbury. "Although we speak of gender inequality, it is usually women who are disadvantaged relative to similarly situated men." 5. "Gender inequality can also disadvantage men. In many countries, only men serve in the armed forces, and in most countries, only men are sent into direct combat." "the gender arrangements of most societies assume that women will do the work of bearing and caring for children while men will do the work of protecting and supporting them economically" (7). "This gendered division of labor is rooted in the survival of small groups living at the substance level." but in modern societies, unnecessary and obsolete. "The modern forms of gender inequality are not a complementary exchange of responsibilities but an elaborate system within which, it was estimated by a UN report in 1980, women do two-thireds of the world's work, receive 10 percent of the world's income, and own 1 percent of the world's property." 7.

Clatterbaugh, "Are Men Oppressed?" In Larry May, Robert Strikwerda, and Patrick D. Hopkins, eds, Rethinking Masculinity: Philosophical Explorations in Light of Feminism. Rowman & Littlefield, 1996. "Is the fact that only men are drafted and used in combat the result of valuing men's lives less or the result of a patriarchal society that through its isntutions holds that only men are capable of being soldiers, that only men have the courage, strength and military intelligence to defend their country. Women, othe the other hand, are the property and spoils of war that victories take along with the roads, homes, farms, and factories of the vanquished." 301-302. "The history of trying to bring women into the military suggests that it is not because men are valued less than women that only men are drafted, but that men are valued more. Add to this male privilege the fact that the military has provided a primary road of upward mobility for men through elaborate subsidizations in insurance, home loans, educational opportunities, preferential hiring, and tax benefits and the fact that very few men who serve see combat, and that those who do are often poor or men of color and the military looks more like a structure for the advancement of male privilege than a source of male oppression." p 302.

Dorit Geva, Conscription, Family and the Modern State: A Comparative Study of France and the United States. Cambridge, 2013. US and French conscription policy "designated men as the primary figures of authority within their families," creating "a distinctly modern form of patriarchal authority," which "placed familial authority at the heart of their respective states." 3. "In the United States, women's second-class citizenship throughout the nineteenth century likewise placed men in a position of authority over their families. Conscription rules during the Civil War, particularly for the Union Army, made this crystal clear, and as will be shown with greater detail, so did the formation and operation of the US Selective Service System during World War I and its subsequent operation during World War II." 4. "familial (patriarchal) authority" 11. "

New Cite for Sexism Article
There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primarily to discrimination against women, and primarily affects women. See, for example:
 * Defines sexism as "prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex."
 * Defines sexism as "prejudice, stereotyping, or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of sex."


 * Defines sexism as "prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls."
 * Notes that "sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain partriarchy, or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives, and institutions that oppress womena nd girls on the basis of sex or gender."
 * Notes that "sexism in a society is most commonly applied against women and girls. It functions to maintain partriarchy, or male domination, through ideological and material practices of individuals, collectives, and institutions that oppress womena nd girls on the basis of sex or gender."


 * Notes that "'Sexism' refers to a historically and globally pervasive form of oppression against women."
 * Notes that "'Sexism' refers to a historically and globally pervasive form of oppression against women."


 * Notes that "sexism usually refers to prejudice or discrimination based on sex or gender, especially against women and girls."
 * Also states that "sexism is an ideology or practices that maintain patriarchy or male domination."
 * Also states that "sexism is an ideology or practices that maintain patriarchy or male domination."


 * Defines sexism as "thought or practice which may permeate language and which assume's women's inferiority to men."
 * Defines sexism as "thought or practice which may permeate language and which assume's women's inferiority to men."


 * Defines sexism as "any devaluation or denigration of women or men, but particularly women, which is embodied in institutions and social relationships."
 * Defines sexism as "any devaluation or denigration of women or men, but particularly women, which is embodied in institutions and social relationships."


 * Notes that "either sex may be the object of sexist attitudes... however, it is commonly held that, in developed societies, women have been the usual victims."
 * Notes that "either sex may be the object of sexist attitudes... however, it is commonly held that, in developed societies, women have been the usual victims."


 * "Sexism is any act, attitude, or institutional configuration that systematically subordinates or devalues women. Built upon the belief that men and women are constitutionally different, sexism takes these differences as indications that men are inherently superior to women, which then is used to justify the nearly universal dominance of men in social and familial relationships, as well as politics, religion, language, law, and economics."
 * "Sexism is any act, attitude, or institutional configuration that systematically subordinates or devalues women. Built upon the belief that men and women are constitutionally different, sexism takes these differences as indications that men are inherently superior to women, which then is used to justify the nearly universal dominance of men in social and familial relationships, as well as politics, religion, language, law, and economics."


 * Notes that "both men and women can experience sexism, but sexism against women is more pervasive."
 * Notes that "both men and women can experience sexism, but sexism against women is more pervasive."


 * Suggests that "the key test of whether something is sexist... lies in its consequences: if it supports male privilege, then it is by definition sexist. I specify 'male privilege' because in every known society where gender inequality exists, males are privileged over females."
 * Suggests that "the key test of whether something is sexist... lies in its consequences: if it supports male privilege, then it is by definition sexist. I specify 'male privilege' because in every known society where gender inequality exists, males are privileged over females."


 * Notes that "although we speak of gender inequality, it is usually women who are disadvantaged relative to similarly situated men."
 * Notes that "although we speak of gender inequality, it is usually women who are disadvantaged relative to similarly situated men."


 * "As throughout history, today women are the primary victims of sexism, prejudice directed at one sex, even in the United States."
 * "As throughout history, today women are the primary victims of sexism, prejudice directed at one sex, even in the United States."