User:GLPeterson

="From the inception of the wireless system I saw that this new art of applied electricity would be of greater benefit to the human race than any other scientific discovery, for it virtually eliminates distance. The majority of the ills from which humanity suffers are due to the immense extent of the terrestrial globe and the inability of individuals and nations to come into close contact. . . ."=

Work
WP:WikiProject Energy WT:WikiProject Energy

WP:WikiProject_Physics WT:WikiProject_Physics

WP:WikiProject_Electrical_engineering WT:WikiProject_Electrical_engineering

Heterodyning
A signal processing technique developed by inventor-engineers Reginald Fessenden and Nikola Tesla between 1892 and 1901 that creates a new output frequency by combining or mixing two other input frequencies. . ..

Beat receiver/receptor
<!-- The beat receiver or beat receptor is a direct-conversion heterodyne detector invented by Nikola Tesla prior to 1896 to receive continuous un-modulated radio waves (CW) and produce an audible note through the mixing of locally generated radio-frequency currents with radio-frequency currents from an antenna or receiving structure. This is achieved by the application of a locally generated radio-frequency magnetic field to radio-frequency currents flowing in a conductor.

The beat receiver consists of an LC circuit made up of a capacitor plus a steel wire or band that is stretched through the field of a powerful electro-magnet. The capacitor is of comparatively large value because the conductor is short. The tuned circuit is excited by radio-frequency alternating current inductively coupled from the receiver's antenna.

The electromagnet is excited by stable radio-frequency alternating current produced by a local isochronous electro-mechanical oscillator known as a beat frequency oscillator or BFO. It consists of two chambers in the center of which is placed a vibrating membrane. This is inclosed in a magnetic field, consisting of a powerful coil encircling the device, and which is excited by a direct current. The membrane is caused to vibrate by passing interrupted, compressed air through the two chambers. In the process of vibration, an electromagnetic force is produced in a coil secured to the vibrating disc.

The frequency of the locally produced oscillation is set close to the frequency of the received signal. The steel wire, brought under tension and mechanically tuned, is caused to vibrate at the resulting audible beat frequency of the local and received oscillations.


 * "The apparatus is timed by adjusting the periodicity of the band until the received wave is made audible."

The pioneering work of Tesla and Fessenden lead to the development of basic intermediate frequency circuitry.

Magneto-inductive coupling or inductive coupling, Magneto-inductive phenomena
<!-- Use of magneto-inductive & electro-inductive: https://www.google.com/#q=magnetoinductive&* https://www.google.com/#q=electro-inductive&start=20&*

Examples: Chipless RFID tags based on magneto-inductive or electro-inductive delay lines, Francisco Javier Herraiz-Martinez, Alvaro Gonzalez-Moreno and Daniel Segovia-Vargas http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6684750/

Abstract: Novel fully passive and electromagnetic chipless tags are proposed. These tags are implemented with magnetoinductive-wave (MIW) delay lines. Such lines are composed of a periodic array of coupled square split ring resonators (SSRRs) and propagate slow waves. Each tag is codified by introducing reflectors between the elements of the array. When the tags are interrogated with a pulse in time domain, they produce replicas at the positions where the reflectors are placed. Thanks to the slow group velocity of the MIW delay line, the replicas of the original pulse are not overlapped in time domain and can be demodulated, thus providing the identification code of the tag. In this work, also tags based on electroinductive-wave (EIW) delay lines are investigated. An EIW delay line consists of the dual structure of a MIW line. Thus, it is implemented by etching complementary resonators in the ground plane. The reported simulation and experimental results validate the proposed approach. Published in: Applied Electromagnetics and Communications (ICECom), 2013 21st International Conference on; 14-16 Oct. 2013; INSPEC Accession Number:  13978566; DOI:  10.1109/ICECom.2013.6684750; Publisher: IEEE

Magnetoinductive Waves in 2D Periodic Arrays of Split Ring Resonators, Salvatore Campione and Filippo Capolino http://capolino.eng.uci.edu/Publications_Papers_Conferences%20(local)/Campione,%20Capolino,%20Mesa%20-%20Magnetoinductive%20Waves%20in%202D%20Periodic%20Arrays%20of%20SRRs-%20IEEE%20APS%20Symp%20-%202012.pdf Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Abstract—Magnetoinductive waves in arrays of split ring resonators (SRRs) have been previously investigated. Here we characterize modes with real and complex wavenumber in two dimensional periodic arrays of SRRs. Each SRR is modeled as a single magnetic dipole, and the retrieval of the complex modal wavenumbers is performed by computing the complex zeroes of the homogeneous scalar equation characterizing the field in the array. The required periodic Green’s function is analytically continued into the complex wavenumber space by using the Ewald method. The proposed method allows for the description of each complex mode when varying frequency, complementing previous investigations. In particular, we analyze proper and improper, bound and leaky, magnetoinductive waves.

"magneto-inductive effects" []

With inductive coupling (magneto-inductive coupling), electric current flowing through a primary coil creates a magnetic field that acts on a secondary coil producing a current within it. The main drawback to this basic form of wireless transmission is its short range. The secondary coil receiver must be immediately adjacent to the primary coil transmitter in order to efficiently couple with it. As the distance from the primary is increased, more and more of the magnetic field misses the secondary. Even over a relatively short range the inductive coupling is grossly inefficient, wasting much of the transmitted energy. -->

Electro-inductive coupling or Capacitive coupling, Electro-inductive phenomena
Capacitive coupling (electro-inductive coupling), is the conjugate equivalent of inductive coupling (magneto-inductive coupling).

Resonant capacitive coupling
<!-- Resonance can also be used with capacitive coupling to extend the range. At the turn of the 20th century, Nikola Tesla did the first experiments with both resonant capacitive and resonant inductive coupling. Electrical energy is transmitted by electric fields between electrodes such as metal plates. The transmitter and receiver electrodes form a capacitor, with the intervening space as the dielectric. An alternating voltage generated by the transmitter is applied to the transmitting plates, and the oscillating electric field induces an alternating potential on the receiver plates by electro-inductive coupling, which causes an alternating current to flow in the load circuit. The amount of power transferred increases with the frequency the square of the voltage, and the capacitance between the plates, which is proportional to the area of the smaller plates and (for short distances) inversely proportional to the separation.

Capacitive coupling has only been used practically in a few low power applications, because the high voltages on the electrodes required to transmit significant power can be hazardous, and can cause undesirable side effects such as ozone production. In addition, in contrast to magnetic fields, electric fields interact strongly with most materials, including the human body, due to dielectric polarization. Intervening materials between or near the electrodes can absorb the energy, in the case of humans possibly causing excessive electromagnetic field exposure. However capacitive coupling has a few advantages over magneto-inductive coupling. The field is largely confined between the capacitor plates, reducing interference, which in magneto-inductive coupling requires heavy ferrite "flux confinement" cores. Also, alignment requirements between the transmitter and receiver are less critical. Capacitive coupling has recently been applied to charging battery powered portable devices. and is being considered as a means of transferring power between substrate layers in integrated circuits.

Two types of circuit are being used:
 * Bipolar design: In this type of circuit, there are two transmitter plates and two receiver plates.  Each transmitter plate is coupled to a receiver plate. The transmitter oscillator drives the transmitter plates in opposite phase (180° phase difference) by a high alternating voltage, and the load is connected between the two receiver plates.  The alternating electric fields induce opposite phase alternating potentials in the receiver plates, and this "push-pull" action causes current to flow back and forth between the plates through the load.  A disadvantage of this configuration for wireless charging is the two plates in the receiving device must be aligned face to face with the charger plates for the device to work.


 * Unipolar design: In this type of circuit, the transmitter and receiver each have a single 'active' or higher voltage electrode.  A return path for the transmitted energy is provided by either electro-inductive coupling between two large 'passive' or lower voltage electrodes, or two common ground terminal electrode connections.  The transmitter oscillator is connected between its active electrode and its passive electrode, or ground terminal electrode.  The receiver load is also connected between its active electrode and its passive electrode, or ground terminal electrode.  The electric field produced by the transmitter induces alternating charge displacement in receiver through electro-induction.

Resonant capacitive coupling is applicable to the Surface wave transmission line wireless energy transmission method.

-->

Atmospheric plasma channel coupling
<!--In atmospheric plasma channel coupling, energy is transferred between two electrodes by electrical conduction through ionized air. When an electric field gradient exists between the two electrodes, exceeding 34 kilovolts per centimeter at sea level atmospheric pressure, an electric arc occurs. This atmospheric dielectric breakdown results in the flow of electric current along a random trajectory through an ionized plasma channel between the two electrodes. An example of this is natural lightning, where one electrode is a virtual point in a cloud and the other is a point on Earth. Laser Induced Plasma Channel (LIPC) research is presently underway using ultrafast lasers to artificially promote development of the plasma channel through the air, directing the electric arc, and guiding the current across a specific path in a controllable manner. The laser energy reduces the atmospheric dielectric breakdown voltage and the air is made less insulating by superheating, which lowers the density ($$p$$) of the filament of air.

This new process is being explored for use as a laser lightning rod and as a means to trigger lightning bolts from clouds for natural lightning channel studies, for artificial atmospheric propagation studies, as a substitute for conventional radio antennas, electronic jamming, for applications associated with electric welding and machining, for diverting power from high-voltage capacitor discharges, and for directed-energy weapon applications employing electrical conduction through a ground return path.

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Earth transmission line coupling
EXCITATION AND USE OF GUIDED SURFACE WAVE MODES ON LOSSY MEDIA

<!-- In surface wave transmission line coupling, energy is transferred by a guided electromagnetic wave excited with a grounded or capacitively grounded resonance transformer electrical oscillator transmitter  Energy transmission is achieved by charging and discharging elevated charge terminal electrode T1 and lower ground terminal electrode T2 of the transmitter, producing an alternating electric field. With correct phasing this electric energy is field matched to and excites the surface wave transmission line propagation mode. The energy is received using a similar resonance transformer receiver tuned to the same frequency. Electrical energy is transferred between the transmitter and receiver when coupling is established. In this way incandescent electric lamps can be lit at long range distances. The transmitted energy can be detected at greater distances. This form of wireless energy transmission in which propagating electrodynamic currents pass through the earth with an equivalent electrical displacement in the air above it was investigated in 2008 over distances up to 20 meters, achieving long range non-radiative wireless power transfer efficiencies superior to the resonant magneto-inductive coupling method.

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Jagadish Chandra Bose's experiments
<!--



Bose performed followed up work to that of James Clerk Maxwell on the existence of electromagnetic radiation, Heinrich Hertz on the existence of electromagnetic waves in free space, and Oliver Lodge on the quasi optical nature of "Hertzian waves" (radio waves) and their similarity to light and vision including reflection and transmission. Realizing the disadvantages of radio waves of relatively long wavelength for studying the light-like properties of electromagnetic radiation, Bose reduced the waves to the millimetre level (about 5 mm wavelength) now referred to as microwaves. He invented the crystal radio detector, the waveguide, the microwave horn antenna and other apparatus used at microwave frequencies.

During a November 1894 (or 1895) public demonstration at Town Hall of Kolkata, witnessed by Lieutenant Governor Sir William Mackenzie, Bose ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using millimetre range wavelength microwaves. Bose wrote in a Bengali essay, Adrisya Alok (Invisible Light), "The invisible light can easily pass through brick walls, buildings etc. Therefore, messages can be transmitted by means of it without the mediation of wires."

Bose's first scientific paper, "On polarisation of electric rays by double-refracting crystals" was communicated to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in May 1895, within a year of Lodge's paper. His second paper was communicated to the Royal Society of London by Lord Rayleigh in October 1895. In December 1895, the London journal the Electrician (Vol. 36) published Bose's paper, "On a new electro-polariscope". (At that time, the word 'coherer', coined by Lodge, was used in the English-speaking world for Hertzian wave receivers or detectors.) Bose went to London on a lecture tour in 1896 and met Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi, who had been developing a radio wave wireless telegraphy system for over a year and was trying to market it to the British post service. In an interview Bose announced the development of a "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.

-->

Nikola Tesla's experiments
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_power_transfer&oldid=746613847#Tesla

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_power_transfer&oldid=744688956#Tesla.27s_experiments

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_power_transfer&oldid=744636501#Nikola_Tesla.27s_experiments

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_power_transfer&oldid=742685327#Nikola_Tesla.27s_experiments

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wireless_power_transfer&oldid=735272016#Tesla.27s_experiments

The Leyh-Kenan Demonstrations


"Wireless transmission of power through coupled electric fields [with earth return] is practical and easily demonstrated at high power levels over laboratory-scale distances.

We are currently developing several other proof-of-concept receiver coils, including the self-motive prototype shown in Figure 7. . . . The unit can move about in the area near the coils, powered completely by the electric fields. The metal wheels conduct the secondary RF ground currents to the concrete.

Tesla’s original patent [4] (U.S. Patent No. 649,621, APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY, May 15, 1900) resembles a far-field approach, given the large intended distance between stations compared to the station size. However, Tesla’s system minimizes radiated fields and instead relies upon actual conduction, replacing the transmission line with two non-wire conductors. In this case one conductor is the Earth, and the other appears to be either a capacitive path or a direct ionized path to the ionosphere according to different descriptions of the system.

Of the designs mentioned above, the approach outlined in this paper is perhaps most similar to Tesla’s system [APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY], since it does not rely upon far-field or radiated power, or magnetic coupling. However this approach differs significantly from Tesla’s patented system [APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY] in two important ways: A) There is no ionized path between the devices, and B) The receiver performs a synchronous detection of the received energy in order to optimize conversion efficiency. The transfer of energy in this approach occurs primarily through the electric fields between the receiver and transmitter."

The approach outlined in the Leyh-Kennan paper depends upon electrical conduction through the earth as set forth in U.S. Patent No. 649,621, APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY, May 15, 1900. The authors state it differs from the system described in APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY only in that, A) there is no highly ionized path between the Tesla coil transmitter and receiver, and B) the receiver performs a synchronous detection of the transmitted energy. Tesla’s patents, ART OF TRANSMITTING ELECTRICAL ENERGY THROUGH THE NATURAL MEDIUMS, May 16, 1900, U.S. Patent No. 787,412, Apr. 18, 1905 and ART OF TRANSMITTING ELECTRICAL ENERGY THROUGH THE NATURAL MEDIUMS, Apr. 17, 1906, Canadian Patent No. 142,352, Aug. 13, 1912 describe a means by which Tesla's wireless system can be operated without the necessity of a highly ionized path between the two devices (as well as a means for synchronous detection of the transmitted energy).

As for wireless system performance, the Lightning Foundry Twin Coil Prototype used by Leyh and Kennan in their tests has transmitting coil and receiving coil diameters of less than 0.57 meters. The resonator spacing for the tests, that is the transmission-reception distance, was 12 meters. This equates to a transmitting coil spacing-to-diameter ratio of more than 21:1. Mid-range coupling is defined as between one and ten times the diameter of the transmitting coil. The Lightning Foundry Twin Coil Prototype coupling is greater than 21 times the diameter of the transmitting coil, more than twice the defined maximum mid-range coupling distance. (Typically, an inductive coupled system can transmit roughly the diameter of the transmitter. [Baarman, David W.; Schwannecke, Joshua (December 2009). "White paper: Understanding Wireless Power" (PDF). Fulton Innovation. pp. 2, 4.])


 * Wrong; this statement is contradicted by the source given:
 * There is nothing in the Leyh-Kennan paper that says they achieved "greater than mid-range distances". Mid-range wireless power transmission distance is defined as between 1 and 10 times the size of the transmitter.
 * The transmitter coil was about 6 feet (2 meters) high. The power throughput (Table 3) was only 16.5% at 6 meters (3 times the size of transmitter) and dropped to almost nothing, 1.58% at 10 meters (5 times size of transmitter). These are typical mid-range distances achieved by capacitive coupling.
 * Leyh and Kennan explicitly say their experiment does not use the same "atmospheric conduction" method as Tesla claimed   "...this approach differs significantly from Tesla’s patented system in two important ways: A) There is no ionized path between the devices..."
 * Even at the short distances they used, there was no sign that Tesla's "ground currents" could transfer significant amounts of power.   The Leyh-Kennan paper distinguished three methods of power transmission in their experiment:  "(1) Magnetic coupling between the two secondary cores, (2) Electric coupling between the two top electrodes, (3) Coupling through shared ground current paths". They found that "...transfer of energy in this approach occurs primarily through the electric fields between the receiver and transmitter.", not ground currents: "The conclusion from this experiment was that shared ground current paths provide negligible amounts of coupling..."

Tesla’s patented system APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY relies upon electrical conduction through two non-wire conductors, one conductor being Earth and the other either a capacitive path or an ionized path between a Tesla coil transmitter and a Tesla coil receiver.

In the approach outlined in the Leyh-Kennan paper the transmission of energy occurs through a capacitive path by capacitive coupling between the top electrodes of a Tesla coil transmitter and a Tesla coil receiver.

Even at the short distances they used, there was no sign that Tesla's "ground currents" could transfer significant amounts of power. The Leyh-Kennan paper distinguished three methods of power transmission in their experiment: "(1) Magnetic coupling between the two secondary cores, (2) Electric coupling between the two top electrodes, (3) Coupling through shared ground current paths". They found that "...transfer of energy in this approach occurs primarily through the electric fields between the receiver and transmitter.", not ground currents: "The conclusion from this experiment was that shared ground current paths provide negligible amounts of coupling..."

Leyh-Kennan states, " shared ground current paths provide negligible amounts of coupling"

They found that "... transfer of energy in this approach occurs primarily through the electric fields between the receiver and transmitter", not ground currents.

This is an incorrect statement.

"They found that "transfer of energy in this approach occurs primarily through the electric fields between the receiver and transmitter" not shared ground current paths " is correct.

The only difference between the Tesla system APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY and the Leyh-Kennan system is the Leyh-Kennan system does not use an ionized path between the Tesla coil transmitter and the Tesla coil receiver. The Tesla system uses a ground current path, therefore the Leyh-Kennan system uses a ground current path.

The Lightning Foundry by Greg Leyh
What is the Lightning Foundry? The Lightning Foundry is a project to re-create super-long discharge effects normally found only in lightning. Two 10-story Tesla Coil towers will fill an area the size of a football field with lightning-like discharges hundreds of feet in length. If we trigger super-long discharge effects the arcs could strike considerably further. https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/648673855/the-lightning-foundry

World's largest Tesla coils being built to unlock the secrets of natural lightning, Randolph Jonsson, November 30th, 2011, Gizmag is now New Atlas, http://newatlas.com/worlds-largest-tesla-coils/20653/

Two identical 1:12 prototype coils were made by first winding the secondary wire onto cardboard tubes as we did for Electrum [in fact we used the same winding jig, after cleaning off a bit of rust.] The cardboard tubes w/windings were then inserted into the corrugated pipe, and potted into place. Once the potting set we removed the cardboard tubes, leaving the windings exposed to the inside of the tube. Lsec and Fo of the windings did not measurably change after potting. – GL, Source: http://www.pupman.com/listarchives/2005/Aug/msg00121.html

LIGHTNING ON DEMAND, http://www.lod.org/index.html

We've finally started on a single 1/3rd scale LOD tower. Here's a concept sketch. Construction photos coming soon: https://twitter.com/LightningOD, https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CiTDjKkUoAAIIzw.jpg -->

Corum & Corum, et al.
'''[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vQTYaL9jCMo. . .]'''

Near-field and non-radiative technologies
<!-- In 2008 the team of Greg Leyh and Mike Kennan of Nevada Lightning Lab used a grounded dual resonance transmitter with a 57 cm diameter secondary tuned to 60 kHz and a similar grounded dual resonance receiver to transfer power by capacitive coupling and electrical conduction through earth over a distance of 12 meters. The Lightning Foundry Twin Coil Prototype coupling distance was long range, at more than 21 times the transmitter coil diameter.

In 2016 the team of James Corum and Kenneth Corum, et al, reported using grounded and capacitively grounded Tesla coil transmitters and similar Tesla coil receivers to demonstrate long range non-radiative wireless transmission of electrical energy at distances up to 100 miles  by means of the Sommerfeld-Zenneck wave.

2003, 1850 kHz, 20 miles;

2012, 59 MHz, 2 miles;

1879 kHz, 6 miles;

2014, 52 MHz, 4 km;

200 kHz, 100 miles,

1820 kHz, 20 miles.

-->

Two widely different experiments


The Experiment presented as evidence.
<!-- Tesla's short-range inductive coupling experiments presented as evidence of some revolutionary long-range transmission method. ..





According to Milan Ćirić of the Nikola Tesla Museum, Tesla lit a 10-watt incandescent lamp at a distance of 1,938 feet while at Colorado Springs.

""During his eight month stay at Colorado Springs Tesla carried out a series of experiments with his spark-discharge oscillator. . . . In September 1899 he succeeded in lighting a lamp of approximately 10 W "placed far out into the field," the exact distance from the ground plate being indicated in the Colorado Springs Notes, in the introductory comment for that month."

"Sept. 9. Experiments to be made with st. waves. Exact distance measured to point from ground plate 1938 ft.""

'''The propagation distance of 1938 feet excludes the possibility of the observed effect being the result of energy transmission by resonant inductive coupling. With the magnifying transmitter being 51 feet in diameter, the cited range places the Tesla coil receiver 38 times that distance away, exceeding the definition of mid-range power transfer by nearly a factor of four.'''

'''Let's look at Tesla's results in another way. The operating frequency was 129.5 kHz giving a wavelength of about 2317 meters or 7602 feet. The distance from the transmitter's ground plate was 1938 feet, placing it just over one-quarter wavelength away. With its extreme outer limit being 0.159 wavelength, this places the Tesla coil receiver well beyond the reactive near-field region. Given this historical fact, the 10-watt lamp could not have been illuminated by means of resonant inductive coupling.'''



-->

The true C/S magnifier specifications.
<!-- "Tesla built a gigantic coil in a large square building over which rose a 60 m (196.85 feet) mast with a 1 m (39.37 inch) diameter copper ball positioned at the top. The coil was resonated at a frequency of 150 kHz and was fed with 300 kW of low-frequency power obtained from the Colorado Springs Electric Company. When the RF output was fed to the mast, an RF potential was produced on the sphere that approached 100,000,000 V."

'''At the Colorado Springs Experimental Station he assembled a large version of his resonance transformer called a Tesla coil magnifying transmitter, over which rose a 142-foot mast with a 30 inch diameter foil-covered wooden ball affixed on top. The transmitter coil resonated at a frequency of 86.8 kHz and was fed with 15 kW of low-frequency power obtained from the El Paso Electric Company. When the oscillator's radio-frequency output was fed to the mast the electrical potential produced on the sphere exceeded 1,000,000 V.'''

June 21, 1899 On this date, Tesla notes that his [El Paso Electric Co. AC power] supply transformers can furnish 26 hp or 19,500 watts.

July 7, 1899 The first use of this [Westinghouse] transformer, that is noted, will be on July 25. He claims 50 hp can be had from it with ease and that it could be strained well beyond this figure, which translates to 37,500 watts! Later, on July 25 we will see that his lab power fusing “gives way” at around 15,000 watts!

July 25, 1899 Tesla said that with the blowing of the fuse, the system was using 20 hp. This means that as of July 25th, the maximum power that Tesla had available for experiments was about 15,000 watts.

August 16, 1899 Tesla complains that his supply transformers are not up to the job of allowing the Westinghouse transformer to really perform near its limits.

September 13, 1899 Dr. Marincic comments that he has a receipt for the transformer and it was a 50 kW unit of primary voltages of 200/220 and secondary with taps for 30, 40 and 50 kV.

November 26, 1899 Tesla now says that an 8 foot diameter static shield is positioned on the mast for protecting the 4 guy lines that are connected to each corner of the roof. Tesla goes into great detail as to the special manner of treatment of the ropes to keep the high frequency electricity from traveling along them to the roof. Tesla says that he can now easily charge the mast assembly to about 1 million volts. It should be noted that Tesla appears to suggest that this might be near the limit of the mast's standoff capability and I would heartily agree. This means that the pole could not sustain the potential necessary for 128 foot arcs!! To produce such arcs, many millions of volts would be needed. Nowhere in these notes does Tesla mention ever achieving any such arcs from the mast.

December 14, 1899 Tesla has unwound the 8 foot by 8 foot, 3 inch extra coil and replaced the #10 wire with 100 turns of #6 wire! This will really reduce the effective base impedance of this big coil and improve the oscillator's power handling capabilities. The new coil has the same 18 mH of inductance and resonates at 86.8 kHz.

Power To The Lab As to the station's AC power supply, Tesla gives only a clue as to its capacity early on June 21 when he writes that the three “supply transformers” are capable of 26 hp, or 19,500 watts. He refers to them in a couple of other places and mentions that they are somewhat inefficient and that it required all three of them to supply the Westinghouse transformer. These transformers probably were of the distribution type and used to step down the incoming AC to use with the primary of the large Westinghouse transformer. They can be seen just barely in what I feel is the finest and most informative shot taken at the CSL, photo #III on page 324. These supply transformers are the black cases on the floor just below the power panel and arresters against the south wall of the building near the Westinghouse transformer.

Finalized System Notes: Used for less than 15 days.

Driver System: Input voltage - 20-30 kilovolts. Tesla used 22.5 kV most often. Input power - 15,000 watts or more. No precise high end values known. The supply transformers furnished up to 19,500 watts. Gap system - 20 point aluminum wheeled rotary with two external series gaps. Interrupt rate - 2400-4000 breaks per second. Capacitance - 0.153 mfd., salt water and glass jar construction. Primary - 2 turns (max) 230.9 mH. Most often used as a bifilar single turn - 57.7 mH. Each turn consisted of 37- #9 wires in a bundle. 49.25 feet ill, diameter. A special þregulating coilþ was often used within the primary circuit and contained a maximum of 46.8 mH of inductance. It was used for fine tuning the system. When used, it reduced the coupling coefficient and thereby, the magnetic energy coupled to the secondary. Secondary - 20 turns of bifilar wound #10 insulated wire on a 49.25 foot diameter wooden coil form. 20.4 mH of inductance. Space wound to a height of 69 inches. Coefficient of coupling- .57 (max) most often, less.

Output System: Extra coil - 98 turns of #6 insulated wire plus two top turns of #10 wire on a wooden frame form 7 feet 10 inches tall by 8 feet 3 inches in diameter. The coil contained 18 mH of inductance resonating at 86.8 kiloHertz. Tower - Constructed of iron pipe on a fir wood post to a height of 142 feet 3/4 inch. The final measured capacitance with hood in place was 402 pf. A 30" wooden ball covered with foil was affixed to the top of the mast.

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Tesla wireless system feasibility
<!-- "I have to say here that when I filed the applications of September 2, 1897, for the transmission of energy in which this method was disclosed, it was already clear to me that I did not need to have terminals at such high elevation, but I never have, above my signature, announced anything that I did not prove first. That is the reason why no statement of mine was ever contradicted, and I do not think it will be, because whenever I publish something I go through it first by experiment, then from experiment I calculate, and when I have the theory and practice meet I announce the results.

At that time I was absolutely sure that I could put up a commercial plant, if I could do nothing else but what I had done in my laboratory on Houston Street; but I had already calculated and found that I did not need great heights to apply this method. My patent says that I break down the atmosphere "at or near" the terminal. If my conducting atmosphere is 2 or 3 miles above the plant, I consider this very near the terminal as compared to the distance of my receiving terminal, which may be across the Pacific. That is simply an expression. I saw that I would be able to transmit power provided I could construct a certain apparatus -- and I have, as I will show you later. I have constructed and patented a form of apparatus which, with a moderate elevation of a few hundred feet, can break the air stratum down."

"Other investigators note that Tesla seemed over estimated the conductivity of the Earth and the atmosphere and vastly underestimated the loss of power over distance."

Some present-day investigators believe Tesla vastly underestimated the drop in power over distance. Coe: "The reason [the Tesla wireless system] won't work is because it is based on the original theory of radio transmission for communication purposes. Here, only a minute voltage is sufficient to convey information to the receiver.  The most powerful radio transmitters ever built could generate intense fields in the proximity of the station.  Yet within a few miles they were merely radio signals, albeit stronger than some.  It is all governed by the immmutable laws of electromagnetic radiation.  This law says that the strength of the field is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (1/r2) . [Coe, Lewis (2006). Wireless Radio: A History. McFarland. p. 112. ISBN 0786426624.]  Nature A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME XC SEPTEMBER, 1912, to FEBRUARY, 1913 “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” — WoRDsworth London MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED Sommerfeld (Prof.), Surface Waves in Wireless Telegraphy, p. 422 The general result of all the theoretical investigations of Zenneck, Sommerfeld, and Hoerschelmann is to show that the function of the earth in radio-telegraphy is by no means confined merely to guiding a space wave, but that it fulfills a most important function in assisting to create surface waves and in permitting earth currents which have directive effect. Wireless Telegraphy. The principal discussion arranged was a joint one with Section G on the scientific theory and outstanding problems of wireless telegraphy; it was opened by Prof. J. A. Fleming. Dr. Fleming had drawn up a list of twenty-four questions to which definite answers are still required. In the short time available to him it was impossible to go seriatim through these. After outlining the general methods of signalling now employed, he pointed out that the chief question was how such waves, if they are true Hertzian waves, are propagated a quarter of the way round the earth. The mathematical investigations of Prof. MacDonald, Lord Rayleigh, the late Prof. H. Poincaré, and of Dr. Nicholson seem to have proved that diffraction alone will not account for the phenomenon, even though the waves as used by Marconi have a wave length of nearly four miles. Prof. Sommerfeld had come to the conclusion that there must be “surface waves” at the boundary of the earth and atmosphere, and that these vary in amplitude inversely as the square root of the distance, and are sufficiently feebly damped in a horizontal direction to be propagated long distances, irrespective of irregularities of surface. Another theory has been based by Dr. Eccles upon the ionisation of the atmosphere. If the velocity increases with the ionisation, the upper part of a wave may travel faster than that near the surface, and the direction of propagation will be deflected downwards. Norton: "The purpose of this letter is to point out an error in sign in Arnold Sommerfeld's original paper (1909) on the attenuation of radio waves." [K. A. Norton, "Propagation of Radio Waves Over a Plane Earth," Nature, 135, June 8, 1935, pp. 934-935.] Rice: "In this paper three series expansions are derived for the wave function of a vertical dipole placed at the surface of a plane earth." [S. O. Rice, "Series for the Wave Function of a Radiating Dipole at the Earth’s Surface," Bell System Technical Journal, 16, No. 1, January 1937, pp. 101-109.] Burrows: "These experiments on the propagation of two-meter waves over Seneca Lake have shown that the Surface Wave component of Sommerfield is not set up by simple antennas on the surface of the earth." [Burrows, C.R., "The Surface Wave in Radio Propagation over Plane Earth," Proc. Radio Club of America, vol. 14, No. 2, Aug. 1937, pp. 15-18.] Wise: "Since the wave antennas were designed to utilize the horizontal component of the Zenneck wave electric field and do pick up radio signals it is desirable that we explain the success of the wave antennas in some other way at the same time that we throw away the Zenneck wave. " [Wise, W. H. (1937), The Physical Reality of Zenneck's Surface Wave. Bell System Technical Journal, 16: 35–44. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1937.tb00753.x] Wait: "Norton has suggested that the field in air of a dipole over a homogeneous ground be expressed as a sum of three components: A direct ray (or primary influence), a reflected ray which is to be modified by an appropriate Fresnel reflection coefficient, and a correction term. Norton has described the first and second components as the space wave; the third or correction term, the Surface Wave. This seems to be a logical step, although, taken separately, the space and surface waves of Norton are not solutions of Maxwell's equations. On the other hand, his "space wave" is the contribution that would be derived on the basis of geometrical optics, and his "surface wave" is the correction from wave theory. This latter term will be called the "Norton surface wave" as distinct from the Zenneck and Sommerfeld surface waves, and the trapped surface waves discussed below." [Wait, James R., "Excitation of Surface Waves on Conducting, Stratified, Dielectric-Clad, and Corrugated Surfaces," Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards Vol. 59, No.6, December 1957.] Wheeler: There was a growing conviction (never shared completely by Tesla himself) that the distance effects were fundamentally attributable to electromagnetic radiation, and hence there was offered small hope of discovering any essential novelty. [] '''Wheeler had been wrongly persuaded by the 1935 written statement from Kenneth A. Norton in which he asserted a nonexistent error in sign in Arnold Sommerfeld’s 1909 paper “Über die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der Drahtlosen Telegraphie,” Annalen der Physik, vol. 28, 1909, pp. 665-695, and a seminal experiment on the propagation of two-meter radio space waves over Seneca Lake, New York conducted in 1936 by C.R. Burrows of Bell Labs that had justified Norton’s flawed analysis. These resulted in a conviction on the part of the electrical engineering community as to the non-existence of the Zenneck surface wave. The initial confusion was only resolved analytically some 70 years later (in 2004) by Professor R. E. Collin who stated, "There is no sign error . . . The famous ‘sign error’ is a myth."''' Wait: "The propagation of radio waves along the surface of the ground has been discussed from a theoretical standpoint for many years. As long ago as 1907, Zenneck [J. Zenneck, "Über die Fortpflanzung ebener elektromagnetischer Wellen längs einer ebenen Leiterfläche und ihre Beziehung zur drahtlosen Telegraphie," Ann. Physik [4] 23, 846 (1907).] '''showed that a wave, which was a solution of Maxwell's equations, traveled without change of pattern over a flat surface bounding two homogeneous media of different conductivity and dielectric constants.  When the upper medium is air and the lower medium is a homogeneous dissipative ground, the wave is characterized by a phase velocity greater than that of light and a small attenuation in the direction along the interface.  Furthermore, this Zenneck surface wave, as it has been called, is highly attenuated with height above the surface. In 1909 Sommerfeld''' [A. Sommerfeld, "Uber die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der Drahtlosen Telegraphie" (The Propagation of Waves in Wireless Telegraphy), Ann. Physik [4] 28, 665 (1909); 62, 95 (1920); 81, 1135 (1926).] '''solved the problem of a vertical dipole over a homogeneous ground (half-space). In an attempt to explain the physical nature of his solution, he divided the expression for the field into a "space wave" and a "Surface Wave." Both parts, according to Sommerfeld, are necessary in order to satisfy Maxwell's equations and the appropriate boundary conditions. The surface-wave part varied inversely as the square root of the range, and it was identified as the radial counterpart of the plane Zenneck surface wave." [Wait, James R., "Excitation of Surface Waves on Conducting, Stratified, Dielectric-Clad, and Corrugated Surfaces," Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards Vol. 59, No.6, December 1957.] Banos: "Burrows made careful measurements which show that the results of Weyl for radio propagation over a plane earth are entirely consistent with the experimental work, but they differ from those of Sommerfeld by the surface wave term [arising from the residue of the pole in Figure 8 below]. . . . Burrows concludes that his experimental results prove conclusively that simple antennas do not generate a Sommerfeld surface wave" [A. Banos, Dipole Radiation in the Presence of a Conducting Half-Space, Pergamon Press, 1966, pp. 20-24, 154-155.] Collin: "There is no sign error. . . The famous ‘sign error’ is a myth." [”Collin, R.E., “Hertzian Dipole Radiating Over a Lossy Earth or Sea: Some Early and Late 20th Century Controversies,” IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, vol. 46, No. 2, April 2004, pp. 64-79.] Hill & Wait: "Excitation of the Zenneck wave is examined for both finite and infinite vertical apertures over a homogeneous conducting flat ground. The infinite vertical aperture with a Zenneck wave variation is found to excite only the Zenneck wave with no radiation field. The finite vertical aperture excites a field which is similar to the Zenneck wave near the aperture but resembles the usual ground wave at large distances. Numerical results for various aperture heights are given for frequencies of 1 and 10 MHz. Both homogeneous ground and sea water paths are considered.''' [Hill, D. A., and J. R. Wait (1978), Excitation of the Zenneck surface wave by a vertical aperture, Radio Sci., 13(6), 969–977, doi:10.1029/RS013i006p00969.] Tesla’s approach was to employ the radial cylindrical surface wave or radial form of Zenneck wave [Barlow, H., J. Brown, Radio Surface Waves, Oxford University Press, London, 1962.] while at the same time suppressing space wave electromagnetic radiation. Barlow & Brown: "Sommerfeld and Zenneck, in their original analysis of the problem of wave propagation over a lossy earth, provided the key to many of the subsequent important surface-wave developments, but the interest taken in the subject was largely restricted to mathematical arguments until Goubau demonstrated the capabilities of the single-wire transmission line as a surface waveguide. We know now that Surface Waves can have far-reaching significance and that by applying the right techniques these waves can be employed in a wide variety of applications, both for guided wave propagation and for aerial systems.  Studies of the subject are still developing rapidly and it seems that we are only on the threshold of a wide field of new discovery.  The authors hope that this Monograph will help to introduce the subject to those who have not so far given it particular attention and at the same time to stimulate further progress." [] Tesla: " I am not producing radiation in my system; I am suppressing electromagnetic [space] waves. But, on the other hand, my apparatus can be used effectively with electromagnetic [space] waves.  The apparatus has nothing to do with this new method except that it is the only means to practice it.  So that in my system, you should free yourself of the idea that there is radiation, that energy is radiated.  It is not radiated; it is conserved. " [Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power, Leland I. Anderson, editor, Sun Publishing Company, 1992, p. 133.)] --><!-- '''Marinčić: "Tesla's claim that his system is different from Hertz‘s is based on the fact that at low frequencies, and with small antenna in terms of wavelength, radiation of Hertzian type electromagnetic wave is small.  Tesla's waves, if we are allowed to use such a name, are in fact Surface Waves in modern terminology. . . . In "pure Hertzian" wave (in Tesla's terminology) there is no induced current in the Earth, except on reflection region which is not essential for the discussion. In contrast to the latter, guided surface. . . waves do not exist without current in the Earth crust. Having this in mind, we can conclude that there is a truth in Tesla's statements about specific behavior of low frequency, guided to the Earth waves." [Marinčić, Aleksandar, “Research of Nikola Tesla in Long Island Laboratory,” Energy and Development at the International Scientific Conference in Honor of the 130th Anniversary of the Birth of Nikola Tesla, The Tesla Journal, Numbers 6 & 7, Tesla Memorial Society, 1990, pp. 25-28.] In 1907 Jonathan Zenneck described an electromagnetic wave that travels over a flat surface bounding two homogeneous media of different conductivity and dielectric constants. [J. Zenneck,”Über die Fortpflanzung ebener elektromag netischer Wellen längs einer ebenen Leiterfläche und ihre Beziehung zur drahtlose n Telegraphie” (“On the propagation of plane electromagnetic waves along a planar conductor surface and its relation to wireless telegraphy”), ''Ann. Physik [4] 23, 846 (1907).]  The Zenneck wave has a phase velocity greater than that of light and its field strength falls off exponentially at a rate of e-αd/√d in the direction of propagation along the interface, where α is a frequency-dependent attenuation constant.' [Goubau, G., “Über die Zennecksche Bodenwelle,” (On the Zenneck Surface Wave), Zeitschrift für Angewandte Physik, Vol. 3, 1951, Nrs. 3/4, pp. 103-107.] '''As the wavelength is increased the propagation attenuation decreases and the fields extend over a greater distance. The field intensity of the wave is at a maximum at the bounding surface, has a small attenuation in the direction along the interface, and high attenuation with height above the surface. [Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power, Leland I. Anderson, editor, Sun Publishing Company, 1992, p. 133n.] A pure Zenneck wave has no space wave component; the portion of field energy present in the upper half space or dielectric is evanescent.''' '''In 1909 Sommerfeld performed a theoretical analysis of the propagation of radio waves around the earth, solving for the problem of a vertical dipole over a finitely conducting homogeneous ground. He divided the expression for the resulting field into "space wave" and "Surface Wave" components. The surface wave part had nearly identical properties to the unique plane surface wave solution to Maxwell’s equations that had been identified by Zenneck two years previously. The field amplitudes varied inversely as the square root of the horizontal distance from the source and decayed exponentially with height above the interface. [Sommerfeld, Arnold N., "Uber die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der drahtlosen Telegraphie," Annalen der Physik, March 16, 1909 (Vol. 28, No. 4), pp. 665-736.]''' [Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony, and Transmission of Power, Leland I. Anderson, editor, Sun Publishing Company, 1992, p. 75n.] Devereaux: "This paper introduces the use of an electromagnetic phenomenon called the Zenneck surface wave to wirelessly transfer power from a secured external power generation source directly to a microgrid without reliance on traditional wired macrogrid architecture. It discusses the fragility and limitations of the current grid, describes the unique physical characteristics and historical evolution of Zenneck surface wave technology, and tracks its developmental status.  The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of this groundbreaking technology. [Richard T. Devereaux, USAF (Ret.), "THE MICROGRID UNPLUGGED: ENERGY SURETY VIA WIRELESS POWER." SPP silver-air interface 10um.gif of a Sommerfeld Zenneck wave at an air-silver interface, at a frequency corresponding to a free-space wavelength of 10μm. The permittivity of silver at this frequency is (-2700 + 1400i). The picture is (0.6 × 10μm) across horizontally.]]

'''The radial cylindrical radio surface wave or Zenneck surface wave exists as an exact solution to Maxwell's equations. It is supported by a planar or spherical interface between two homogeneous media having different dielectric constants.''' [Barlow, H., J. Brown, Radio Surface Waves, Oxford University Press, London, 1962.], [Hendry, Janice, “Surface Waves: What are they? Why are they interesting?,” Roke Manor Research Ltd., 2009.] In the case of terrestrial wireless power transfer, the upper medium is the insulating atmosphere and the lower medium is the earth below it, comprising a lossy spherical conducting transmission line. [Corum, K. L. and J. F. Corum, U.S. Patent Pending US20140252886 A1, "Excitation and use of guided surface wave modes on lossy media.", [Corum, K. L. and J. F. Corum, U.S. Patent Pending US20160072300 A1, "Excitation and use of guided surface wave modes on lossy media." 



'''Some say Tesla over estimated the conductivity of the earth. And, it is said, he over estimated the conductivity of the atmosphere as well. Numerical analysis based upon Earth resistivity measurements show the net resistance between antipodes to be less than one ohm. ["Nikola Tesla and the Diameter of the Earth: A Discussion of One of the Many Modes of Operation of the Wardenclyffe Tower," K. L. Corum and J. F. Corum, Ph.D. 1996] As to atmospheric conductivity, at an elevation of 50 km or 31 miles it is "practically perfect".

"If you go high enough, the conductivity is so great that horizontally there is no more chance for voltage variations. The air, for the scale of times that we are talking about, becomes effectively a conductor.  This occurs at a height in the neighborhood of 50 kilometers.  This is not as high as what is called the "ionosphere," in which there are very large numbers of ions produced by photoelectricity from the sun.  Nevertheless, for our discussions of atmospheric electricity, the air becomes sufficiently conductive at about 50 kilometers that we can imagine that there is practically a perfect conducting surface at this height, from which the currents come down." [Feynman, R. P., R. B. Leighton, M. Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley, 1964, Vol. 2, chapter 9; p. 629.] -->

Earth electrical resonance and Stationary terrestrial waves
<!-- According to Tesla, his wireless system would use what he called "current waves" propagating along the ground at and just below earth's surface.

Marinčić: "The Tesla current wave is a surface wave in modern terminology." [] '''On July 3, 1899, Tesla claimed discovery of "terrestrial stationary waves," standing waves extending across the earth to the antipode opposite his Colorado Springs magnifying transmitter. He theorized they were due to a form of propagating electric current energy related to a single-conductor surface wave electrical transmission line phenomenon. ..

'''. . . called the Sommerfeld-Zenneck wave.

'''Tesla claimed that earth resonance would allow for the global transmission of electrical energy.

The terrestrial stationary wave claimed by Tesla formed the basis of his proposed World Wireless system, designed for point-to-point telecommunications, broadcasting, and, ultimately, the transmission of electrical power in industrial quantities.

'''Tesla: "That communication without wires to any point of the globe is practicable with such apparatus would need no demonstration, but through a discovery which I made I obtained absolute certitude. Popularly explained, it is exactly this:  When we raise the voice and hear an echo in reply, we know that the sound of the voice must have reached a distant wall, or boundary, and must have been reflected from the same.  Exactly as the sound, so an electrical wave is reflected, and the same evidence which is afforded by an echo is offered by an electrical phenomenon known as a "stationary" wave — that is, a wave with fixed nodal and ventral regions.  Instead of sending sound-vibrations toward a distant wall, I have sent electrical vibrations toward the remote boundaries of the earth, and instead of the wall the earth has replied.  In place of an echo I have obtained a stationary electrical wave, a wave reflected from afar. [THE PROBLEM OF INCREASING HUMAN ENERGY, Century Magazine, June 1900]] Tesla: "The discovery of the stationary terrestrial waves, showing that, despite its vast extent, the entire planet can be thrown into resonant vibration like a little tuning fork; that electrical oscillations suited to its physical properties and dimensions pass through it unimpeded, in strict obedience to a simple mathematical law, has proved beyond the shadow of a doubt that the earth, considered as a channel for conveying electrical energy, even in such delicate and complex transmissions as human speech or musical composition, is infinitely superior to a wire or cable, however well designed. ["Tesla Said" "Tuned Lightning," English Mechanic and World of Science, March 8, 1907.] Seifer: "The measuring of standing waveforms from the electrical storms throughout July [1899] confirmed what he had suspected, namely, that the earth had a resonant frequency and could therefore be used as a carrier wave to transmit his signals."[[] Tesla: "This problem was rendered extremely difficult, owing to the immense dimensions of the planet . . . but by gradual and continuous improvements of a generator of electrical oscillations . . . I finally succeeded in reaching electrical movements or rates of delivery of electrical energy not only approximately, but, as shown in comparative tests and measurements, actually surpassing those of lightning discharges . . . By the use of such a generator of stationary waves and receiving apparatus properly placed and adjusted in any other locality, however remote, it is practicable to transmit intelligible signals, or to control or actuate at will any one apparatus for many other important and valuable purposes." ["Tesla's Reply to Edison," English Mechanic and World of Science, July 14, 1905, p. 515, in Tesla Said, pp. 88-89, excerpted in ]

Tesla: "This is certainly extraordinary for it shows more and more clearly that the earth behaves simply as an ordinary conductor and that it will be possible, with powerful apparatus, to produce the stationary waves which I have already observed in the displays of atmospheric electricity. [. '''Marinčić: "Tesla's claim that his system is different from Hertz‘s is based on the fact that at low frequencies, and with small antenna in terms of wavelength, radiation of Hertzian type electromagnetic wave is small. Tesla's waves , if we are allowed to use such a name, '''are in fact surface waves in modern terminology. . . .''' In "pure Hertzian" wave (in Tesla's terminology) there is no induced current in the Earth, except on reflection region which is not essential for the discussion. In contrast to the latter,  guided surface waves do not exist without current in the Earth crust . Having this in mind, we can conclude that there is a truth in Tesla's statements about specific behavior of low frequency, guided to the Earth waves. As regards correctness of his approach to the propagation theory based on outlined assumptions, more study is needed and we hope that it will be done in the future."''' []

Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums -- the "three requirements"
--><!-- O'Neill: "I also asked him if he is still at work on the project which he inaugurated in the '90's of transmitting power wirelessly anywhere on earth. He is at work on it, he said, and it could be put into operation. . . . He at that time announced two principles which could be used in this project.   In one the ionizing of the upper air would make it as good a conductor of electricity as a metal.  In the other the power is transmitted by creating "standing waves" in the earth by charging the earth with a giant electrical oscillator that would make the earth vibrate electrically in the same way a bell vibrates mechanically when it is struck with a hammer.  "I do not use the plan involving the conductivity of the upper strata of the air," he said, "but I use the conductivity of the earth itself, and in this I need no wires to send electrical energy to any part of the globe." ["Tesla Cosmic Ray Motor May Transmit Power 'Round' Earth," Brooklyn Eagle, July 10, 1932.] 



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Articles
Wireless energy transmission Wireless power transfer Wireless power Wireless power Wireless power Wireless power

Wardenclyffe Tower

Tesla coil

Magnifying transmitter Merge article into World Wireless system or Wardenclyffe tower?

Terrestrial stationary waves

Terrestrial stationary waves

Tesla Experimental Station

Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe

Beat receptor Heterodyne

Annex

World Wireless system or Tesla wireless system World Wireless '''

Revision as of 22:10, 21 November 2014 <!-- Revision as of 18:03, 30 November 2014 Revision as of 20:07, 2 December 2014 Revision as of 20:54, 2 December 2014 Revision as of 20:01, 7 December 2014 Revision as of 13:04, 20 January 2015 Revision as of 02:29, 29 January 2015 Revision as of 16:23, 26 April 2015 Revision as of 11:52, 26 July 2015 Revision as of 01:15, 6 September 2015 Revision as of 00:34, 13 September 2015 Revision as of 02:57, 13 September 2015 Revision as of 15:55, 3 October 2015 Revision as of 19:19, 3 October 2015 Revision as of 20:02, 3 October 2015 Revision as of 20:28, 3 October 2015 Revision as of 01:05, 18 November 2015 Revision as of 00:34, 13 September 2015 Revision as of 02:57, 13 September 2015 Revision as of 19:19, 3 October 2015 Revision as of 20:28, 3 October 2015 Revision as of 21:32, 4 October 2015 Revision as of 22:37, 4 October 2015 Revision as of 23:06, 4 October 2015 Revision as of 01:05, 18 November 2015 --> , , , 

Longitudinal electromagnetic wave


<!-- The longitudinal wave is a wave in which the displacement of the medium is in the same direction as, or the opposite direction to, the direction of propagation of the wave. Mechanical longitudinal waves are also called compressional or compression waves, because they produce compression and rarefaction when traveling through a medium, and pressure waves, because they produce increases and decreases in pressure.

Maxwell's equations lead to the prediction of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, which are transverse (in that the electric fields and magnetic fields vary perpendicularly to the direction of propagation). However, waves can exist in plasmas or confined spaces, called plasma waves, which can be longitudinal, transverse, or a mixture of both. Plasma waves can also occur in force-free magnetic fields.

In the early development of electromagnetism, there were some like Alexandru Proca (1897-1955) known for developing relativistic quantum field equations bearing his name (Proca's equations) for the massive, vector spin-1 mesons. In recent decades, some extended electromagnetic theorists, such as Jean-Pierre Vigier and Bo Lehnert of the Swedish Royal Society, have used the Proca equation in an attempt to demonstrate photon mass as a longitudinal electromagnetic component of Maxwell's equations, suggesting that longitudinal electromagnetic waves could exist in a Dirac polarized vacuum.

After Heaviside's attempts to generalize Maxwell's equations, Heaviside came to the conclusion that electromagnetic waves were not to be found as longitudinal waves in "free space" or homogeneous media. But Maxwell's equations do lead to the appearance of longitudinal waves under some circumstances, for example, in plasma waves or guided waves. Basically distinct from the "free-space" waves, such as those studied by Hertz in his UHF experiments, are Zenneck waves. The longitudinal modes of a resonant cavity are the particular standing wave patterns formed by waves confined in a cavity. The longitudinal modes correspond to those wavelengths of the wave which are reinforced by constructive interference after many reflections from the cavity's reflecting surfaces. Recently, Haifeng Wang et al. proposed a method that can generate a longitudinal electromagnetic (light) wave in free space, and this wave can propagate without divergence for a few wavelengths.

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Surface Impedance Boundary Condition (SIBC)
Surface Impedance Boundary Conditions (SIBC) allow efficient modeling of conductors with a sufficiently strong skin effect. The direct modeling of such conductors with an appropriate MMP expansions for the field inside the conductor and with usual boundary conditions on the surface of the conductor is possible, but numerically very inefficient. First of all, the wavelength inside a good conductor is short and the field varies rapidly. Therefore, a high matching point density on the boundary and a large number of multipole expansions in the close vicinity of the boundary are required for accurately modeling the field. Note that the field outside the conductor can vary much less rapidly. Therefore, fewer matching points and a simpler MMP expansions are required for the exterior field. The distance between matching points can even be much greater than the wavelength inside the conductor.

Dogma of the Circle
"The postulate of ancient science on the perfection of circular motion which set abstractions on the facts of astronomical observations and for a long time determined not only the nature of the first theories of celestial mechanics, but also the approach to the mathematical description of physical phenomena by means of exponentials."

Kenneth Alva Norton
A United States War Department engineer. a former Federal Communications Commission engineer. . . Winner of The Franklin Institute Ballantine Award in 1954 for contributions in the field of radio propagation. The Norton ground wave is named after this individual.

Norton published a set of flat earth radio propagation curves in 1936.[1] The final Norton curves give normalized ground wave field strength vs. distance for various conductivities, fixed permittivity (εr = 15), and a selection of frequencies. Norton’s plots for 540-1640 kHz, ultimately ended up as the 20 famous charts in the FCC Rules and Regulations.[2]

1. K. A. Norton, “The Propagation of Radio Waves over the Surface of the Earth and in the Upper Atmosphere – Part I,” Proceedings of the IRE, 24, 1936, pp. 1367-1387. 2. FCC Rules and Regulations, Volume III, Part 73, US Government Printing Office, March 1980. See §73.184, Graphs 1-19A, “Ground Wave Field Intensity vs. Distance” and Graph 20, “Relative Field Intensity F(p)/p vs. Numerical Distance p”. 3. K. A. Norton, “The Propagation of Radio Waves over the Surface of the Earth and in the Upper Atmosphere: Part II,” Proceedings of the IRE, 25, 1937, pp. 1203-1236. [See: Corrections,” by R. J. King, Radio Science, 4, No. 3, March 1969, p. 267.] 4. [https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/TN/nbstechnicalnote12.pdf Kenneth A. Norton. Transmission Loss in Radio Propagation. We will be concerned primarily with the transmission loss encountered in the propagation of ...]