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 * 1) The impact of historical trauma on health outcomes for indigenous populations in the USA and Canada: A systematic review
 * 2) An integrative development-in-sociocultural-context model for children’s engagement in learning
 * 3) Parental ethnic-racial socialization practices and children of color’s psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Due to the increasing racial and ethnic diversity in the United States ethnic-racial socialization research has been granted attention (Wang et al., 2020). Parental ethnic-racial socialization is a way of passing down cultural resources to create an impact in children of color; an impact that may lead to psychosocial wellness. (Wang et al., 2020). The goals of ethnic-racial socialization are: to pass on a positive view of one’s ethnic group and to help children cope with racism (Wang et al., 2020). Through a meta-analysis of research done in the field of ethnic-racial socialization many conclusions can be made about the significance of the research that has shown ethnic-racial socialization positively affecting psychosocial well-being and also about the future needs of research in the field (Wang et al., 2020). This meta-analysis review focuses on research relevant to four indicators of psychosocial skills and how they are influenced by developmental stage, race & ethnicity, research designs, and the differences between parent & child self-reports (Wang et al., 2020). The dimensions of ethnic-racial socialization that are considered when looking for correlations with psychosocial skills are: cultural socialization, preparation for bias, promotion of mistrust and egalitarianism (Wang et al., 2020).

Ethnic-racial socialization’s dimensions are defined as follows: cultural socialization is the process of passing down cultural customs, preparation for bias ranges from positive or negative reactions to racism and discrimination, promotion of mistrust conditions synergy when dealing with other races and egalitarianism puts similarities between races first (Wang et al., 2020). Psychosocial competencies are defined as follows: self-perceptions involve perceived beliefs of academic and social capabilities, interpersonal relationships deal with the quality of relationships, externalizing behaviors deal with observable troublesome behavior and internalizing behavior deals with emotional intelligence and regulation (Wang et al., 2020). The multiple ways that these domains and competencies interact have indicated small correlations between ethnic-racial socialization and psychosocial wellness, but this parenting practice remains in need of further research. (Wang et al., 2020).

This meta-analysis shows that developmental stages are important to consider because these stages affect how ethnic-racial socialization is perceived (Wang et al., 2020). Cultural socialization practices are shown to affect the same way across developmental stages but preparation for bias and promotion of mistrust are encouraged at an older age (Lee, Grotevant, Hellerstedt, & Gun-nar, 2006; McHale et al., 2006, Hughes & Johnson, 2001). Existing research shows ethnic-racial socialization serves African-Americans positively against discrimination (Bannon et al., 2009). Cross-sectional studies were predicted to have greater effect sizes because correlations are inflated in these kind of studies (Wang et al., 2020, Huguley et al., 2019; Priest et al., 2014; Yasui, 2015). Parental reports of the influence of ethnic-racial socialization are influenced by “intentions,” so child reports tend to be more accurate. (Yasui, 2015, Wang et al., 2020).

Amongst other conclusions derived from this meta-analysis, cultural socialization and self-perceptions had a small positive correlation, cultural socialization and promotion of mistrust had a small negative correlation and interpersonal relationships had a positive relationship with cultural socialization and preparation for bias (Wang et al., 2020). In regard to developmental stages, ethnic-racial socialization had a small but positive correlation with self-perceptions during childhood and early adolescence (Wang et al., 2020). Based on study designs there were no significant differences, meaning that cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies both showed small positive correlations between ethnic-racial socialization and self-perceptions (Wang et al., 2020). Reporter differences between parents and children showed positive correlations between ethnic-racial socialization when associated with internalizing behavior and interpersonal relationships (Wang et al., 2020). These two correlations showed a greater effect size with child reports compared to parent reports (Wang et al., 2020).

The meta-analysis on previous research shows only correlations so there is a need for experimental studies that can show causation amongst the different domains and dimensions (Wang et al., 2020) Behavior of children and adaptation to this behavior may indicate a bidirectional effect which can also be addressed by an experimental study (Wang et al., 2020). There is evidence to show that ethnic-racial socialization can help children of color obtain social-emotional skills that can help them navigate through racism and discrimination, but further research needs to be done to increase the generalizability of existing research (Wang et al., 2020).

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