User:Generalissima/News media in Madagascar

History
Catholic and Protestant missionaries to Madagascar brought printing presses to the country during the 19th century, with the first operated by the London Missionary Society in 1827. Early publications were primarily limited to religious and education books. American Quaker missionary Louis Street founded the nation's first newspaper, a monthly titled Ny Gazety Malagasy printed at the Friends' Foreign Mission Association office in Antananarivo. It began publication in May 1875, but was shut down in 1876 after criticizing the government of prime minister Rainilaiarivony. A government gazette, also named Ny Gazety Malagasy, was published independently by the Merina monarchy beginning in June 1883. Various local English-language newspapers circulated from 1875 to 1896, including the Madagascar News, Madagascar Mail, Madagascar World, and the Malagasy Public Opinion. These papers, all based at Antananarivo, were strongly anti-French and religious in their outlook, due to their publication by British Protestant missionaries.

Colonial period
Around fourteen French newspapers were published across the country during this period, although many of these were highly ephemeral. They were aimed at French planters and traders on the island. Most were based at Tamatave and Diego-Suarez, although others existed at Majunga and Tuléar. In the aftermath of the French conquest, many new Francophone publications emerged. In 1900, an official journal titled Vaovao was first published at Antananarivo, alongside a private paper the same year.

A large number of French papers emerged during the early 20th century, prominently including the Dépêche de Madagascar and L'Écho du Sud. French language press was subject to less censorship than those published in Malagasy; as such, even most Malagasy journalists wrote in French. The colonial authority issued a 1927 decree requiring all local newspapers employ a French settler as chief editor. The first nationalist papers, L'Aurore and L'Opinion, were founded by Communist organizer Paul Dussac alongside Malagasy journalists. These papers were subject to repeated seizure by local authorities. Press censorship was relaxed under the Popular Front government during the mid-1930s, resulting in the emergence of many Malagasy-language publications, only a few of which would survive World War II. The island's first radio station, the government-affiliated Radio Tananarive, began broadcasting in 1931. Initially receivable only in the immediate vicinity of the capital, transmitter upgrades in 1938 allowed it to reach most of the country. As newspaper circulation away from the capital was often sluggish, radio broadcasts gained significant popularity; around 2,000 receiving sets were in use in 1939, half in areas lacking electrical power. Initially broadcasting exclusively in French (due to an audience of largely colonial officials), small amounts of Malagasy news was introduced on the station prior to the war.

During the Battle of Madagascar, two English papers (the Morning Pioneer and Evening Pioneer) were published for British troops at Diego-Suarez. British occupational forces continued use of the Radio Tananarive station to broadcast news and government orders. The growth of an independent Malagasy language press continued after the war. Many nationalist papers circulated for a brief period following 1945, only to be halted by a wave of press censorship following the beginning of the Malagasy Uprising in 1947. Many pro-rebel newspapers were banned either permanently or temporarily, including 28 papers in Antananarivo from 1948 to 1949. Robert Bargues's administration during the early 1950s saw a significant relaxation on these policies, alongside a significantly greater government investiture in public information. His administration saw the foundation of a number of "Information Halls", featuring radios, newspapers, and film projectors; these building served as the nucleus for many new or revived news publications. Local political press flourished again following the Loi-cadre reforms leading up to independence. Radio Tananarive switched to bilingual material during this period. Following a large grant from the French goverment, SORAFOM took over operations in 1957, renaming it to Radiodiffusion de Madagascar, and expanded its broadcasting schedule.

Malagasy Republic
A period of press freedom followed the 1960 independence of the Malagasy Republic, marked by underfunded and poorly-staffed papers. Many short-lived papers emerged during the early 60s, only to fall into bankruptcy soon after. Most permanent fixtures of the period were those associated with organizations such as political parties, churches, or the central government. As a result, very few neutral papers emerged, with exceptions such as the Madagasikara Rahampitso or the comedic weekly Hehy. Publications during the period were described by writer Virginia Thompson as highly amateur and unprofessional in their coverage, with journalism "mediocre and at times absurd." A bilingual paper of record, Le Courrier de Madagascar was established in 1962 by Philibert Tsiranana alongside French press networks, published daily until 1972.

Radio access was massively expanded during the early republic. Information Halls, many having fallen into a state of disrepair, were retrofitted with new radio equipment. The government launched Opération Transistor, granting two-year loans to citizens in order to purchase transistor radios; by 1965, there was an estimated 70,000 recieving sets and around half a million daily listeners in Madagascar. Radio broadcasting was put under a state monopoly, the Société Malgache de Radiodiffusion. Both this monopoly and Opération Transistor itself were critiqued by opposition parties, accusing the ruling PSD of trying to undercut opposition political presses. In 1964, the PSD suspended all papers which published anti-government articles. A second radio service, Radio Université, was broadcast for students of the University of Madagascar system during school terms. An international service was also established, broadcasting French and English material to the African continent. Television was briefly introduced in 1965, going off-air soon after. It was reintroduced in late 1967 in cooperation with the OCORA, but was very slow to gain traction in the country.

Democratic Republic
Following his 1975 seizure of power, President Didier Ratsiraka introduced heavy censorship over the press. Following the lead of geopolitical allies such as the Soviet Union, direct state control was relaxed in the late 1980s. Radio journalist John Victor Raliarison founded the Komity Fanorenana Radio Mahaleo Tena in 1991, attempting to break the state radio monopoly. That year, the committee established an illegal radio station, dubbed RFV, using a modified walkie-talkie stationed within a car in Antananarivo. Soon afterwards, it was upgraded and moved indoors, allowing it to reach a 15 km radius around the city and a population of several hundred thousand. The staff of the state radio station went on strike in 1991, leading Ratsiraka loyalists to split off another station the following year. All three of these stations were heavily politics-oriented.

Contemporary history
Following the collapse of the Ratsiraka government, the domestic radio market diversified, including stations focused on music, entertainment, and education. By the end of 1998, 22 separate stations were broadcasting in Antananarivo, including three international relays, three state-ran stations, and sixteen private stations. Previously rare outside of the capital, 33 private stations had been established.

Forms of news media
Many rural Malagasy access information by simple word of mouth, through conversation at marketplaces and village meetings. Village elders and the Chef du Fokontany (local chief or community leader) are expected to share news and information with their communities. However, radio forms the primary source of information for the majority of households.

Radio
Radio is the most popular news medium in Madagascar. As of 2008, over three quarters of households across the country listen to radio, and some form of radio is accessible in around 90% of Madagascar's 1,557 communes. Only the Radio nationale Malagasy (RNM) is accessible in most communes, while around 40% of communes have access to private radio stations.

Newspapers
Malagasy newspapers face significant distribution problems in rural areas, where two-thirds of Madagascar's population live. Additionally, the countryside is faced with literacy rates as low as 40% in more isolated areas. As of 2008, only 7% of Madagascar's communes had access to newspapers, and only about a quarter of households read them. Newspapers are generally regarded as too expensive for working-class people, with only office employees having regular access to them.

Television
As of 2008, only about a third of Malagasy households, mainly in urban areas, had access to television. TV ownership is generally restricted to wealthier citizens, with many people accessing TV content through places like bars, cafés, and video clubs.

Journalism
Although much of the Malagasy public takes a critical view of news media, a 2006 government study found the media to be the most positively-regarded public institution in all but two regions (Menabe and Androy).

Malagasy media is heavily polarized; many mass media outlets are owned by politicians, and generally expect journalists to report news according to specific viewpoints. State-owned radio and television do not criticize the government unless reporting on other media's critiques.

Journalist associations are common in Madagascar, with more than twenty extant organizations. However, many journalists do not wish to pay for membership, and the organizations generally lack power to protect them from government repression. Journalistic education is available at some higher education institutes, including the University of Antananarivo. A 2010 report described domestic journalism training as scarce and low-quality.

News etc.

 * Journalists attacked in run-up to presidential election in Madagascar https://rsf.org/en/journalists-attacked-run-presidential-election-madagascar
 * Twelth anniversary of the Sorakanto Association, Cultural journalism, a profession that combines constraint and passion.
 * After 50 years, journalism at a crossroads in Madagascar https://cpj.org/2010/07/after-50-years-journalism-at-a-crossroads-in-madag/
 * “Resign or Else”: Report of Power Abuse Stifled in the Madagascar Media https://advox.globalvoices.org/2009/07/21/%E2%80%9Cresign-or-else%E2%80%9D-report-of-power-abuse-stifled-in-the-madagascar-media/
 * Madagascar: Traditional and New Media Discuss Crisis Reporting ttps://globalvoices.org/2009/07/07/madagascar-traditional-and-new-media-discuss-crisis-reporting/
 * https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2016-09-09/madagascar-controversial-mass-media-code-approved/
 * https://www.france24.com/en/tv-shows/focus/20211005-facebook-troll-farms-play-outsized-role-in-madagascar-s-politics
 * https://www.irex.org/sites/default/files/pdf/media-sustainability-index-africa-2012-madagascar.pdf