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Neanderthals lived between 130 thousand years ago and about 30 thousand years ago. They evolved from Homo heidelbergensis splitting off from modern humans between 800 thousand and 400 thousand years ago. Neanderthal men were about 166 cm (5 foot 5 inches) tall and averaged 77.6 kg (12 stone 3 pounds) in weight. Neanderthal women stood about 154 cm (5 foot) tall and averaged 66.4 kg (10 stone 6 pounds) in weight. Neanderthals are either classified as a subspecies of modern humans (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) or as a separate human species (Homo neanderthalensis).

Neanderthal remains have been found in most of Europe south of the line of glaciation including the south coast of Great Britain. Finds have also been made outside of Europe in the Zagros Mountains and in the Levant.

Neanderthals were almost exclusively carnivorous although their diet did include cooked vegetables. They made advanced tools and lived in complex social groups. Research on their remains has shown that it is possible that they had a spoken language but the nature of any such language is unknown.

There are a number of theories that try to explain why the Neanderthals died out. It has been suggested that they may have been unable to adapt to the changing climate. Alternatively it has been suggested that they were unable to successfully compete for food with the ancestors of modern humans.