User:GlennParker1/Deltaarterivirus hemfev

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Deltaarterivirus hemfev, formerly Simian hemorrhagic fever virus or simian haemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV), is a highly pathogenic virus in monkeys. It is a positive-stranded RNA virus classified in the family Arteriviridae. It is the only member of the subgenus Hedartevirus. It is a virus of growing interest among scientists and health officials as it is known for causing severe illness in primates related to humans. This article will cover the hosts, symptoms, viral mechanisms, spillover concerns, and possible control tactics.

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Hosts -

Patas are believed to be the natural host for the virus since about 50% of wild patas monkeys have antibodies for the virus, while antibodies are much less prevalent in other simian species such as vervets and baboons. Additionally, it has been found to cause subclinical or symptoms in infected patas monkeys, furthering evidence that patas monkeys could be the natural host of SHFV. In macaques, however, infection with this virus can result in acute severe disease with high mortality. Recently, red colobus monkeys and red-tailed guenons have been identified as natural hosts for SHFV.

In 2022, scientists cautioned about potential future spillover of SHFV.

Transmission between hosts is possible through aerosol droplets and contact with blood, Fomite, and infected needles.

Symptoms -

Asymptomatic infection of the virus can occur in patas monkeys, vervet monkeys, and baboons, although it is observed primarily in patas monkeys. Infection has a rapid onset with animals developing a high fever, facial edema, cyanosis, anorexia, melena, and may begin to hemorrhage at the cutaneous, subcutaneous, and retrobulbar levels. Dehydration and diarrhea have also been recorded as common symptoms. Thrombocytopenia will develop soon after. Death usually occurs within 10–15 days after symptoms appear. Shock (circulatory) has been proposed as the probable cause of death in severe infections.

 Mechanism of Infection - 

In similar fashion to other hemorrhagic viruses, SHFV infects host Macrophage cells. It is believed the virus uses the CD163 receptor to enter macrophage cells.

 Spillover Concern For Humans - 

 Viral Mechanism: 

The viral mechanism of cellular infection is a primary factor in the concern for virus spillover into human populations. It has been found the SHFV has the ability to infect human monocyte cells through binding of the CD163 receptor. Other devastating hemorrhagic viruses of humans like Ebola and Lassa fever use this cellular receptor.

Replication:

Furthermore, SHFV has been shown to replicate within monocytes of the immune system, which is an important ability for a virus to have to continue infection of a host. Human cells possess all proteins required for viral replication. Viruses that cannot replicate within host cells cannot establish successful infections.

 Evasion of Immune System: 

In conjunction with the infection of human immune cells, SHFV has been found to evade portions of the human Innate immune system, the system responsible for non-specific clearance of microbial invaders. These findings show SHFV may be able to bypass the first line of defense, making it easier to establish infection.

It is important to note that it is presently unknown if these mechanisms would be sufficient for SHFV to produce a successful infection in a host capable of disease spread.

 Novel Virus: 

The fact that humans are immunologically naive to SHFV is another concern. Simian hemorrhagic Fever Virus is highly transmissible among susceptible monkey populations, indicating it has the ability to spread through populations well. Humans have not had prior exposure to the virus, meaning it may spread very quickly through human populations if spillover were to occur.

 Control Efforts - 

There is no Vaccine available for Simian Hemorrhagic Fever Virus. The best control strategy proposed is separation of reservoir hosts like African patas monkeys from susceptible hosts like Asian Macaques which would simply decrease the number of disease causing interactions.

To reduce the chances of spillover events, it is recommended humans reduce activities that would lead to contact with infectious species and materials. Improving social infrastructure in geographic areas of concern has also been identified as a control mechanism.

References -
Added references are underlined.

Brinton, M.A.; et al. (8 August 2018). "Expansion of the rank structure of the family Arteriviridae and renaming its taxa" (docx). International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Retrieved 19 December 2019. Deltaarterivirus hemfev (SHFV) simian hemorrhagic fever virus

Caì, Yíngyún, Elena N. Postnikova, John G. Bernbaum, Shuǐqìng Yú, Steven Mazur, Nicole M. Deiuliis, Sheli R. Radoshitzky, et al. “Simian Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Cell Entry Is Dependent on CD163 and Uses a Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis-Like Pathway.” Journal of Virology 89, no. 1 (December 16, 2014): 844–56. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02697-14.

Cornish, Joseph P., Ian N. Moore, Donna L. Perry, Abigail Lara, Mahnaz Minai, Dominique Promeneur, Katie R. Hagen, et al. “Clinical Characterization of Host Response to Simian Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Infection in Permissive and Refractory Hosts: A Model for Determining Mechanisms of VHF Pathogenesis.” Viruses 11, no. 1 (January 15, 2019): 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/v11010067.

Hirsh, Dwight C.; MacLachlan, N. James; Walker, Richard L. (2004). Veterinary Microbiology (2nd ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-8138-0379-1.

Lauck, Michael; Hyeroba, David; Tumukunde, Alex; Weny, Geoffrey; Lank, Simon M.; Chapman, Colin A.; O'Connor, David H.; Friedrich, Thomas C.; Goldberg, Tony L. (2011). "Novel, Divergent Simian Hemorrhagic Fever Viruses in a Wild Ugandan Red Colobus Monkey Discovered Using Direct Pyrosequencing". PLOS ONE. 6 (4): e19056. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...619056L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019056. PMC 3081318. PMID 21544192.

Lauck, M.; Sibley, S. D.; Hyeroba, D.; Tumukunde, A.; Weny, G.; Chapman, C. A.; Ting, N.; Switzer, W. M.; Kuhn, J. H.; Friedrich, T. C.; O'Connor, D. H.; Goldberg, T. L. (2012). "Exceptional Simian Hemorrhagic Fever Virus Diversity in a Wild African Primate Community". Journal of Virology. 87 (1): 688–91. doi:10.1128/JVI.02433-12. PMC 3536393. PMID 23077302.

MacLachlan, N. James, and Edward J. Dubovi, eds. “Arteriviridae and Roniviridae.” In Fenner’s Veterinary Virology (Fifth Edition), 463–76. Boston: Academic Press, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800946-8.00025-8.

Warren, Cody J.; Yu, Shuiqing; Peters, Douglas K.; Barbachano-Guerrero, Arturo; Yang, Qing; Burris, Bridget L.; Worwa, Gabriella; Huang, I.-Chueh; Wilkerson, Gregory K.; Goldberg, Tony L.; Kuhn, Jens H.; Sawyer, Sara L. (13 October 2022). "Primate hemorrhagic fever-causing arteriviruses are poised for spillover to humans". Cell. 185 (21): 3980–3991.e18. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.09.022. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 9588614. PMID 36182704


 * University press release: "Virus Taxonomy: 2018b Release" (html). International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). March 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2019.

Vora, Neil M., Lee Hannah, Chris Walzer, Mariana M. Vale, Susan Lieberman, Ashley Emerson, Jonathan Jennings, et al. “Interventions to Reduce Risk for Pathogen Spillover and Early Disease Spread to Prevent Outbreaks, Epidemics, and Pandemics - Volume 29, Number 3—March 2023 - Emerging Infectious Diseases Journal - CDC.” Accessed May 6, 2024. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2903.221079.