User:Gmbarone/sandbox

Intro Section

The Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment or Age of Reason) is the time period in which cultural and social changes occurred emphasizing reason, analysis and individualism rather than traditional ways of thinking. Initiated by philosophes beginning in late 17th-century Western Europe the process of change fueled from voluntary organizations of men who were committed to the betterment of society. These men convened at coffeehouses, salons and masonic lodges. Institutions that were deeply rooted in society, such as religion and the government began to be questioned and a greater emphasis was placed on ways to reform society with toleration, science and skepticism.

Philosophers including Francis Bacon (1562-1626), René Descartes (1596-1650), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), John Locke (1632–1704), Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), Voltaire (1694–1778), Francis Hutcheson, (1694–1746), David Hume (1711–1776), Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Isaac Newton (1643–1727)[1] influenced society by publishing works in the public sphere.[3] Upon learning about enlightened views, many rulers would apply these reforms to their nations such as allowing for toleration, or accepting multiple religions, in what be came known as enlightened absolutism. Coinciding with the Age of Enlightenment was the Scientific Revolution spearheaded by Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727). This demonstrated greater tolerance by rulers and a newfound interest in man’s relation to nature.

New ideas and belief systems spread around the continent and were fostered by an increase in literacy due to a departure from solely religious texts. These transforming publications include Encyclopédie (1751–72) that was edited by Denis Diderot (1713–1784) and (until 1759) Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783) Some 25,000 copies of the 35 volume encyclopedia were sold, half of them outside France. The Philosophical Dictionary Dictionnaire philosophique (1764) and Letters Concerning the English Nation [1] (1733) written by Voltaire (1694-1778) were also revolutionary texts that spread the ideals of the Enlightenment.

By the end of the 19th century, the Enlightenment was followed by the opposing theories founded in Romanticism.

The Public Sphere The public sphere is the scope in which individuals discuss matters of public interest. The public sphere emerged with the introduction of new modes of communication such as published pamphlets, newspapers, and postal routes; which were byproducts of a capitalist society. The public sphere existed in coffee houses, salons, masonic lodges, academic societies and other public places where private individuals deliberated public matters. Initially these matters were commercial such as trade routes and developed to discussing how to oust the feudal system.

Since the Enlightenment emphasized the use of reason, it is clear the public sphere was a result of reason. As Immanual Kant explains there public and private use of reason. Counter intuitively, private reason is when an individual is a representation of something greater than themself and does not publicize their own opinions. Public use of reason is when an individual employs their own thoughts and opinions and publishes them. Thusly, Kant was an advocate for the freedom of the press as it was a cornerstone of the public sphere, which consisted of public uses of reason.

When individuals gather in public spaces and discussed matters of public interest using a public use of reason public opinion was established. The public sphere had a lot of influence on politics since it creates public opinion. Because of this absolutist states, which where plentiful at the time, denounced the public sphere and only wanted the court discussing and deciding societal affairs.

The court, aristocrats and people in power composed the private sphere. Consequently, they did not contribute to public opinion were in fact the topic of many discussions had in the public sphere.