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Environmental issues in Tajikistan include concentrations of agricultural chemicals and salts in the soil and groundwater, poor management of water resources, and soil erosion. Additionally, because of inadequate sanitation facilities, untreated industrial waste and sewage combine with agricultural runoff to cause water pollution. Pockets of high air pollution caused by industry and motor vehicles have resulted in Tajikistan ranking 133rd in the world in greenhouse gas emissions.

SHOULD I DELETE REDUNDANT INFO FROM OG PAGE

Water Scarcity
In 2010, 64% of the Tajik population had access to potable water, 54% in rural areas and 92% in cities. Water shortage first became a threat in Tajikistan under the Soviet Union's pressure to expand cotton cultivation in Central Asia. During this time, minimal regulation on water use was implemented and much of it was allocated towards irrigation. The Tajik government has since expanded limits on water use, however the agencies involved in their application lack the effective judicial and legal systems necessary.

Agriculture accounts for 90% of Tajikistan's water use, and 33% of Tajikistan's irrigated land is used to cultivate cotton. Much of Tajikistan's irrigation and water treatment systems have not been updated since the end of the Soviet Era, after which a catastrophic civil war ravaged much of the countryside and further damaged already corroding infrastructure. Cotton irrigation uses a majority of Tajikistan's water resources, however the equipment used for irrigation, being outdated, is inefficient and looses a majority of the water it carries. Tajikistan has been slow to update these water systems due to a multitude of political and economic factors, such as a limited budget and mounting debt since the conclusion of the civil war. Additionally, Tajikistan has undergone pressures to cultivate less resource-heavy crops, which have been met by resistance from a politically influential cotton industry. .

Climate change is expected to particularly affect Central Asia in terms of water scarcity. By 2030, demand for water sourced from glaciers in Tajikistan is projected to increase by a third, while glacial runoff is expected to decrease by 30%. As a result, Tajikistan's water use has complicated its relationship with its neighbors. Irrigation in addition to the construction of hydroelectric dams like the Rogun on the Vakhsh, Panj, and Amu rivers without consultation have resulted in water shortages and public outcry in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, as well as contributed to the shrinking of the Aral Sea.

Maybe paragraph on pollution?

NOTES:

Pamir Paradox:

vaksh and panj supposed to feed aral basin and are central asia's main water source, but is mostly stopped by hydroelectric dams such as roghun dam or used in ineeficient cotton irrigation systems. drought and ineffeciten ag systems=5 mill dependent on foreign food aid.

tajikistan only gre 40% of its cereal needs in 2001. only 51% o pop has access to clean water. 47% affected by malnorishment. dependent on decayed and damaged soviet irrigation systems (which were originally built for cotton). crop oligarchs oppose crop diversification, inequitible land dist means lil protection from drought.

hard to repair cuz limited budget and debt. UN more likely to intervene briefly than invest in long-term solutions to drought protection. prob particularly in badakhshan provinces.

Olcott:

30% has access to pipeline tap water, as opposed to 56% in other "early transition countries". havent replaced soviet irrigation. at odds with uzbekistan and fighting 4 water rights:uzbeks approved soviet hydro electric stations, but tajiks dont consult anyone on decisions with amu darya and also doing roghun. also affects turksmenistan. between 98 and 07 used1983 cubic meters per capita (compare to russias 528 and chinas 485).

leg: neither soviets nor current govts restrict water use. take a lot from amu darya. soviets implement ag water use.

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/TJK/TJK-CP_eng.pdf

available water, how much 4 ag, how much 4 cotton, policies. cotton largest user of irrigated land (33%), 64% has access to drinkable water sources, 545 RURAL 92 URBAN., irrigation and livestock uses 90% of water.

also good 4 soil, pollution

Pollution
13% of Tajiks have access to public sewage and 34% are without indoor plumbing or lavatories, resulting in 38% of the population depending on water from potentially contaminated sources and subsequent outbreaks of typhoid and cholera. This lack in infrastructure dates back to the Soviet Era and was exacerbated by poverty and civil war. Other causes of water and air pollution include agricultural runoff from pesticide use, industrial waste and burning of fossil fuels, and tailings from former Soviet mining operations. '''NEED CITATION? NEED TO REEXPLAIN CIVIL WAR EVERY TIME?'''

Most polluted rivers in Tajikistan cross into several other Central Asian nations and is therefore a transnational problem ; the MAY NOT BE NECESSARY Navruz experiment in 2000, which involved several Central Asian governments, discovered high levels of metals and radionuclides in the Aral Sea river basin. Otherwise, regional approaches to pollution have been limited. After the dissipation of the USSR, the region-wide network of data collection posts was fragmented, which, in combination with the destruction of hydroposts during the civil war, has restrained Tajikistan's access to information on pollution in its rivers and its subsequent response.

Consequently, Tajikistan's regional relationships have become tense. In 2005 the Uzbek government blamed Tajikistan's industrial pollution for problems in its ecosystems, public health, and agriculture. Uzbekistan has since insisted on operating under a 1994 agreement that required the neighbors to manage transnational environmental problems together, however Tajikistan maintains that its industry has had no impact on the environment and that the operation of its industrial sector is an exercise of sovereignty.

Agricultural
NOTES

OG PAGE: A large Soviet-era uranium mining operation left poorly constructed repositories of radioactive waste in northwestern Tajikistan. Other operations in Tajikistan extracted and processed gold, antimony, tungsten, mercury, and molybdenum, each of which is known to leave toxic waste. The Kofarnihon, Zarafshon, and Vakhsh rivers pass through heavily polluting industrial regions of the country, carrying pollutants into the Amu Darya and thence to the Aral Sea. The expansion of aluminium processing at Tursunzade, proposed in 2005, would increase industrial pollution in the Dushanbe region.

in 2007 38% o tajiks depeded on water from potentially contaminated sources, causing shit like cholera and typhoid. 1994 typhus epidemic in dushanbe cuzza civil war hurting sanitation system. World Bank trynna help out. same with EBRD. idk who this is according to either olcott or pamir pardaox

Olcott3% has access to public sewage. 37% in other early transition countries.

Industrial
Aluminum is Tajikistan's top export and its production is piloted by TALCO, the state aluminum company and operator of the largest aluminum plant in Central Asia in Tursunzoda. Heavy metals such as antimony, arsenic, copper, and mercury are found in rivers near aluminum plants as well as greenhouse gases and mercury in the air. All heavy metals in water are known to cause health problems when consumed, particularly arsenic, which causes liver damage, dermal lesions, and anemia, as well as mercury, which also pollutes soil and the crops that grow in it. No longer a part of a Soviet-wide supply chain, pressure for TALCO to match Soviet-Era production levels has exacerbated the environmental effects of aluminum manufacturing. The Tajik government has historically denied any ecological or health impacts related to TALCO and made plans in 2017 to partner with China in the construction of a new plant in Tursunzoda.

NOTES

uzbek blames air pollution from plant 4 drop in ag, health problems, and silkworm breeding.https://infoweb-newsbank-com.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/apps/news/document-view?p=AWNB&docref=news/10C90475E4D39CC0 THIS IS 2005 SO MAYBS DIFF SOURCE

so I guess aluminum produces red mud, which in terms of disposal is tough. contains mercury, one of natures most toxic metals. so what hsappens to soil contaminated with it? one tonne of alumina produces .3-2.5 t of red mud. talco has produced industrial waste that has polluted soil, groundwater, and air quality. but ciompared to other large aluminum plants talcos kinda pussy shit.

tajikistan would be particularly affected by climate change cuz depends on glacial runoff. by 2030 water resources will be lower by 30% whie demand will be up 30% fuck thats a lot of 30s. zarafshan affected by untreated ag runoff.also impaired by fertilizers, pesticides ddt and hch, defoliant chemical (butifos), urban pollutants (benzopyrene, oil), and heavy metals like antimony arsenic copper and mercury. hydroposts aka where they collect info about water ig were once based on a regional network that no longer exists and data exchange doesnt happen oh and also bad infrastructure for collecting data of course. management and treatment also no longer happens regionally which is problematic. despite most river basins being transboundary. '''mineralization happening which is somehow bad 4 drinking water and also causes salinization. mineralization comes from ag runoff mostly fertilizers. nitrate and phosphate. part of the overuse of these is lack of water. and they get in the river partly uzza landslide. ooh. btw drinking water goes untreated of course'''. anzob ore mining does metal pollution. all this shit can also affect bioscenes. arsenic poisoning can cause liver damage, dermal lesions, and anemia. passes who threshold in this river. also zinc which causes gill inflamation. all this may be responsible for the loss in biodiversity in the aral sea basin.

olcott: industry was slot to recover cuz it lost its market after ussr disbanded. and also maybe corruption in the early govt from pres rahmon but idk if its worth mentioning. uz claims Surkhan Darya suffers eco damage from plant. and want plant to operate under 94 agreement that said they have to manage eco probs together, taj says there are no problems here and they have the sovereign right. says it doesnt have the money to cleam up uranium. 2008 claimed to have 14% o worlds uranium still untapped and wants to resume mining, denies regional tailing probs despite regional complaints. russia china and iran all are interested. vostokredmet is their main processing plant. also interested in revitalizing investment in gold deposits.

navruz experiment of 2000 brot countries together to find high levels of metals and radionuclides in aral sea basin

Uranium
From 1945 to 1965, the development of the USSR Nuclear Program resulted in the opening of the Andrasman, Chkalovsk, DIgmai, and Taboshar uranium mines. Comparatively minimal cleanup efforts by Soviet and Tajik governments since the abandonment of the mines, in conjunction with Tajikstan's steep mountain topography, have caused uranium tailings to be carried by landslides into soil, pastures and public water sources. Studies in Taboshar and Digmai pit lakes and surrounding areas showed Uranium concentrations to be significantly higher than international recommendations in drinking water and local fish used for consumption.

U CAN THINK UR FINISHED HERE BUT U ARENT

Soil Erosion
The combination of land inequality, water scarcity, deforestation, and overgrazing leads to an estimated 70% of irrigated cropland being affected by soil erosion. Because the majority of rural populations are near landless, stripping steep slopes of water in mountainous areas is common practice, causing landslides and soil degradation. The effects of soil erosion include agricultural inefficiency, ecological destruction, and lower water quality from nitrification and increased pesticide use.

During the Soviet Era, agriculture was state owned and livestock was raised communally, permitting herds to migrate to remote pastures during seasons of extreme heat and cold; entire villages would often be emptied during summers and winters to migrate with livestock. Since the USSR's collapse, livestock numbers have dropped significantly, reducing pressure on grazing lands. However, under the Tajik government, territorial governments are responsible for the allocation of agricultural land, which has resulted in the private ownership of herds and pastures. Because it is less economically viable for an individual to move its herds to remote pastures and because pastures are often privately owned, livestock mobility is limited. Consequently, overgrazing has resulted in pastures without topsoil, vegetation, and ecological diversity.

Deforestation
2% of Tajikistan's land is occupied by forest, a 23% decrease over the past century, two-thirds of which occurred since Tajik independence. The combination of increased population and poverty in rural areas is the main cause, which results in desertification, reduced watershed protection, and landslides. The rural population in Tajikistan has doubled since 1979, causing competition for arable land and farmers spreading to forested areas. Additionally, high energy prices caused by lacking infrastructure have forced rural populations to turn to illegal logging practices for fuel during the winter.

NOTES

Robinson: livestock fell after end of ussr, which led to communally owned livestock and subsistence. however, moving towards privatization, less migration, and more degradation. however also with collapse of ussr came no state farming system and therefore no access to high altitude pastures in summer. also with privatization, olny those who can afford to migrate to remote pastures do, whereas it used to be whole villages.state ownership i think means privatization. cuz thats ho they allocate it. 2007. but they also have access to more remote grazing lands during winter. consequently, much grazing land goes unused by either. livestock numbers increasing. to sum up, laws mostly dont recognize comomon use, punish mobility. common property rights are the answer. kyrgyzstan does it.

Kerven: pasture degradation includes topsoil removen, land barren of vegetation, lack of biodiversity. since end of ussr: less mobility, less places to go in winter. poor irrigation also hurting land. rural outmigration has also made practice more expensive, making migration harder. cliomate change may be drying shit too?

https://permanent.access.gpo.gov/gpo51856/Legislation-on-Use-of-Water-in-Agriculture.pdf legislation on use of water in agriculture

land equability- "The International Crisis Group underlines this inequity, quoting an interviewee in Gharm: "A sovkhoz consisting of 180 families in the Jirgatal district was distributed among only 30 households. The remainder of the house holds in this rural area are now essentially landless and must strip rain-fed land in the mountains for sustenance, leading to erosion."22 Without adequate land and water access, the poor remain without protection against drought. Combined with perceptions of an unjust land redistribution, water insecurity can lead to distrust between groups and fear of local market failures. Protecting water rights for the poor is therefore key to political stability EXPAND"

Soil erosion affects an estimated 70 percent of irrigated cropland. Overgrazing also contributes to soil erosion.

Energy
Due to high prices and dependence on imports from its Central Asian neighbors, Tajikistan faces significant energy shortages. During, the Soviet Era, energy was shared regionally, however, since the disbandment of the USSR and fragmentation of its Central Asian territory, regional energy agreements did not continue, leaving Tajikistan with limited domestic energy resources. The destruction of infrastructure during the civil war on refusal of World Bank funds has also contributed. In 2010, 2% of Tajik households had access to central pipeline heating and 15% to pipeline gas. TALCO, Tajikistan's main aluminum producer, consumes 40% of Barqi Tojik's, Tajikistan's national power company, output.

Tajikistan has largely turned to hydropower to meet its energy demands. In 2010, hydropower accounted for 16% of Tajikistan's electric output. Part of this shift has been plans to complete the Roghun and Sangtuda hydroelectric plants on the Vahksh river from the Soviet Era, in addition to expanding the Nurek dam (the second highest in the world ) and constructing several smaller dams. In addition to contributing to the shrinking of the Aral Sea and complicating Tajikistan's relationship with its neighbors, these plans have created concerns for siltation, lowering the water table, and changes to the river's ecosystem ; accumulation of silt has already reduced the Nurek reservoir's capacity by 17% , and the Tajik government denies the prevalence of other ecological concerns, particularly those voiced by neighboring countries.

2% of households have access to central pipeline heating, 15% to pipeline gas. compare to 13 and 43 in other early transition countries. this is according to 2012. TALCO, tajik aluminium uses 40% of the national electric companies Barki Tojik output. partly cuz energy was centered regionally during ussr, which didnt carry over when borders were drawn. 40 coal deposits which have produced 4.5 bill metric tons. turning to hydro, which produced 16.4 bill kilowatt hours in 2010. imports most of its gas.dams- soviets started damming the vaksh and they seek to finish it.nurek, sangtuda, and rogun and some small ones too. nurek at a time produced 90% of tajiks electrical energy but since ussr has not been productive, lost 17% of its capacity cuzza silt, also cuz tajik aluminum hasnt been producing as much. the other 2 are what they seek to finish. sangtuda finished on 08 but was slowed with end of ussr. rhogun not finished cuz its trying to do it withoug foreign investemnt or orld bank cuzza creative differences.

https://eds-b-ebscohost-com.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=5536fb66-a91b-4a1c-8bbc-6a04123b5a08%40pdc-v-sessmgr06 general stats

https://www-jstor-org.libezp.lib.lsu.edu/stable/j.ctt6wpk8m book

https://www.jstor.org/stable/24357872?seq=9#metadata_info_tab_contents pamir paradox