User:Grimhelm/English cannon

English cannon (or British cannon) were first used by England during the Hundred Years War, where. Under the Tudors, the first forts featuring cannon batteries were built, while cannon were first used at sea by the Tudor navy (where a cannon is referred to as a gun). With the Age of Discovery, and the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies, cannon saw use in English armies in North America, first against the rival colony of New France, and later during the American Revolutionary War. They were later used by the British Empire, from the 15th century Age of Discovery to World War I.

This article deals with English cannon up to the beginning of widespread use of field guns during the Napoleonic Wars. For later use, see "Artillery".

Early English cannon
English cannon saw its first use during the Hundred Years War, being only used in small numbers by a few states during the 1340s. "Ribaldis" were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy between 1345 and 1346. These were believed to have shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot, but they were so important they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe. According to the contemporary Jean Froissart, the English cannon made "two or three discharges on the Genoese", which is taken to mean individual shots by two or three guns because of the time taken to reload such primitive artillery. The Florentine Giovanni Villani agreed that the were destructive on the field, though he also indicated that the guns continued to fire upon French cavalry later in the battle:

""The English guns cast iron balls by means of fire… They made a noise like thunder and caused much loss in men and horses… The Genoese were continually hit by the archers and the gunners… [by the end of the battle] the whole plain was covered by men struck down by arrows and cannon balls.""

Similar cannon appeared also at the Siege of Calais in the same year, and by the 1380s, the "ribaudekin" had become mounted on wheels.

The Tudor Navy and the Rise of the Fort


Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the development of cannon made revolutionary changes to siege warfare throughout Europe, with many castles becoming susceptible to artillery fire. In England, significant changes were evident from the 16th century, when Henry VIII began building Device Forts between 1539 and 1540 as artillery fortresses to counter the threat of invasion from France and Spain. They were built by the state at strategic points for the first powerful cannon batteries, but unlike true castles, these were served a purely military function (rather than serving as residences). Deal Castle is one of the most impressive such Device Forts, and was perfectly symmetrical, with a low, circular keep at its centre. Over 200 cannon and gun ports were set within the walls, and the fort was essentially a firing platform, with a shape that allowed many lines of fire; its low curved bastions were designed to defelect cannon balls. Cannon were now an inexorable part of English warfare.

Cannon also saw use in the Tudor navy (where a cannon was a "gun", and a cannonball a "shot"). The French "culverin" was adapted for naval use by the English in the late 16th century, and had a significant advantage over the ballista that had previously been used in naval warfare. This cannon was of relatively long barrel and light construction, and fired solid round shot projectiles at long ranges along a flat trajectory. One of the first ships to be able to fire a full cannon broadside was the English carrack the Mary Rose, built in Portsmouth from 1509–1510, and equipped with 78 guns (91 after an upgrade in 1536). It was one of the earliest purpose-built warships to serve in the English Navy (thought never to have served as a merchant ship), and her crew consisted of 200 sailors, 185 soldiers, and 30 gunners.

With the Age of Discovery, rivalry developed between European colonies, and the importance of cannon in naval warfare was now more important than ever. Many merchant vessels were armed with cannon by this time, and the aggressive activities of English privateers, who engaged the galleons of the Spanish treasure fleets, helped provoke the first Anglo-Spanish War. A fleet review on Elizabeth I's accession in 1559 showed the navy to consist of 39 ships, and in 1588, Philip II of Spain launched the Spanish Armada against England, but after a running battle lasting over a week, the Armada was scattered.

The lower tier of 17th century English ships of the line were usually equipped with demi-cannon - a naval gun which fired a 32-pound solid shot. A full cannon at this time fired a 42-pound shot, but these were discontinued by the 18th century as they were seen as too unwieldy.

The Eighteenth Century
With the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies, cannon saw use in English armies in the North American mainland, first against the rival colony of New France. However, although the French were outnumberd, their fortifications and artillery were superior to English cannon. When 34 ships from the English colony of Massachusetts bombarded Québec in 1690, they were outmatched by the French batteries, which badly damaged the ships' hulls and struck off the colours of the English flagship. The English brass field guns landed on the shore were entirely ineffective against the militiamen in the woods, and a spontaneous retreat left five cannon abandoned on the shore. The French victory showed that to take Quebec, the cannon of "Old England would have to be brought in".

Québec was finally captured during the French and Indian War, with the French retreating to Montréal. The English had more cannon installed in the fortifications, and built more embrasures into the walls to maximise their effectiveness against siege batteries. When the French returned in 1760, the defenders had to leave all but two of their field guns in the retreat into the city. However, English cannon proved effective, as a heavy cannonade on the French batteries allowed them to hold out long enough for reinforcements. By the time of the American Revolutionary War, the following cannon would have been in use by the English:



Operation
The 1771 Encyclopedia Brittanica describes the operation of 18th century British cannon. Prior to loading, the cannon would be well cleaned with a sponge to remove all sparks, filth, and dirt. A wad of paper or hay was added, and then the ball was thrown in. Each cannon would be manned by two gunners, six soldiers, and four officers of artillery. The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder, while the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and keep ready to fire the cannon at the officer's command. Three soldiers stood on each side of the cannon, to ram and sponge the cannon, and hold the lantern and ladle. The second soldier on the left was charged with providing 50 bullets.

After ramming the wad the powder, and that over the bullet, they would then turn the cannon towards the battery or embrasure. The elevation was set with a quadrant and a plummet. At 45 degrees the ball had the utmost range - about ten times the gun's level range. Any angle above the horizontal line was called random-shot. The officer of artillery had to ensure the cannon was diligently served. Water was available to dip the sponges in and cool the pieces every ten or twelve rounds. In the late 1770s it was said that a 24-pounder could fire 90 to 100 shots a day in summer, or 60 to 75 in winter. A 16 or 12 pounder would fire a little more, because they were easier served. The Encyclopedia Brittanica mentions "some occasions where 200 shots have been fired from these pieces in the space of nine hours, and 138 in the space of five."