User:Gtsourdinis/sandbox

 First article: 

= XENON = The XENON dark matter research project operated at the Italian Gran Sasso laboratory is a deep underground research facility featuring increasingly ambitious experiments aiming to finally detect long sought after dark matter particles. These particles in the form of Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) are believed to be found by looking for rare interactions via nuclear recoils in a liquid xenon target chamber. The current detector consists of a dual phase Time projection chamber (TPC).

The experiment detects scintillation and ionization produced when particles interact in the liquid xenon volume, to search for an excess of nuclear recoil events over known backgrounds. The detection of such a signal will provide the first direct experimental evidence for dark matter candidate particles. The collaboration is currently led by Italian professor of physics Elena Aprile from Columbia University.

Detector Principle
The XENON experiment operates a dual phase Time projection chamber (TPC), which utilizes a liquid xenon target with a gaseous phase on top. Two arrays of photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), one at the top of the detector in the gaseous phase (GXe), and one at the bottom of the liquid layer (LXe), detect scintillation and electroluminescence light produced when charged particles interact in the detector. Electric fields are applied across both the liquid and gaseous phase of the detector. The electric field in the gaseous phase has to be sufficiently large to extract electrons from the liquid phase.

Particle interactions in the liquid target produce scintillation and ionization. The prompt scintillation light produces 178 nm ultraviolet photons. This signal is detected by the PMTs, and is referred to as the S1 signal. This technique has proved sensitive enough to detect single photoelectrons. The applied electric field prevents recombination of all the electrons produced from a charged particle interaction in the TPC. These electrons are drifted to the top of the liquid phase by the electric field. The ionization is then extracted into the gas phase by the stronger electric field in the gaseous phase. The electric field accelerates the electrons to the point that it creates a proportional scintillation signal that is also collected by the PMTs, and is referred to as the S2 signal.

The detector allows for a full 3-D position determination of the particle interaction. Electrons in liquid xenon have a uniform drift velocity. This allows the interaction depth of the event to be determined by measuring the time delay between the S1 and S2 signal. The position of the event in the x-y plane can be determined by looking at the number of photons seen by each of the individual PMTs. The full 3-D position allows for the fiducialization of the detector, in which a low-background region is defined in the inner volume of the TPC. This fiducial volume has a greatly reduced rate of background events as compared to regions of the detector at the edge of the TPC, due to the self-shielding properties of liquid xenon. This allows for a much higher sensitivity when searching for very rare events.

Charged particles moving through the detector are expected to either interact with the electrons of the xenon atoms producing electronic recoils, or with the nucleus, producing nuclear recoils. For a given amount of energy deposited by a particle interaction in the detector, the ratio of S2/S1 can be used as a discrimination parameter to distinguish electronic and nuclear recoil events. This ratio is expected to be greater for electronic recoils than for nuclear recoils. In this way backgrounds from electronic recoils can be suppressed by more than 99%, while simultaneously retaining 50% of the nuclear recoil events.

XENON10
The XENON10 experiment was installed at the Gran Sasso underground laboratory in Italy during March 2006. The underground location of the laboratory provides 3100 m of water-equivalent shielding. The detector was placed within a shield to further reduce the background rate in the TPC. XENON10 was intended as a prototype detector, to prove the efficacy of the XENON design, as well as verify the achievable threshold, background rejection power and sensitivity. The XENON10 detector contained 15 kg of liquid xenon. The sensitive volume of the TPC measures 20 cm in diameter and 15 cm in height.

An analysis of 59 live days of data, taken between October 2006 and February 2007, produced no WIMP signatures. The number of events observed in the WIMP search region is statistically consistent with the expected number of events from electronic recoil backgrounds. This result excluded some of the available parameter space in minimal Supersymmetric models, by placing limits on spin independent WIMP-nucleon cross sections down to below 10−43cm2 for a 30 GeV/c2 WIMP mass.

Due to nearly half of natural xenon having odd spin states (129Xe has an abundance of 26% and spin-1/2; 131Xe has an abundance of 21% and spin-3/2), the XENON detectors can also be used to provide limits on spin dependent WIMP-nucleon cross sections for coupling of the dark matter candidate particle to both neutrons and protons. XENON10 set the world's most stringent restrictions on pure neutron coupling.

XENON100
The second phase detector, XENON100, contains 165 kg of liquid xenon, with 62 kg in the target region and the remaining xenon in an active veto. The TPC of the detector has a diameter of 30 cm and a height of 30 cm. As WIMP interactions are expected to be extremely rare events, a thorough campaign was launched during the construction and commissioning phase of XENON100 to screen all parts of the detector for radioactivity. The screening was performed using High Purity Germanium detectors. In a few cases mass spectrometry was performed on low mass plastic samples. In doing so the design goal of <10−2 events/kg/day/keV was reached, realising the world's lowest background rate dark matter detector.

The detector was installed at the Gran Sasso Laboratory in 2008 in the same shield as the XENON10 detector, and has conducted several science runs. In each science run, no dark matter signal was observed above the expected background, leading to the most stringent limit on the spin independent WIMP-nucleon cross section in 2012, with a minimum at 2.0 × 10−45cm2 for a 65 GeV/c2 WIMP mass. These results constrain interpretations of signals in other experiments as dark matter interactions, and rule out exotic models such as inelastic dark matter, which would resolve this discrepancy. XENON100 has also provided improved limits on the spin dependent WIMP-nucleon cross section. An axion result was published in 2014, setting a new best axion limit.

XENON100 operated the then-lowest background experiment, for dark matter searches, with a background of 50 mdru (1 mdru = 10−3 events/kg/day/keV).

XENON1T
Construction of the next phase, XENON1T, started in Hall B of the Gran Sasso national Laboratory in 2014. The detector contains 3.5 tons of ultra radio-pure liquid Xenon, and has a fiducial volume of about 2 tons. The detector is housed in a 10 m water tank that serves as a muon veto. The TPC is 1 m in diameter and 1 m in height. The predicted sensitivity at 50 GeV/c2 is 2.0 x 10−47 cm2. This is 100x lower than the current limit published for XENON100.

It is expected to explore/test supersymmetry candidates such as CMSSM.

In Recent News
The detector project team, called the XENON Collaboration, is comprised of 135 investigators across 22 institutions from Europe, the Middle East, and the United States.

Findings from XENON1T remained silent until May 18, 2017, when the XENON Collaboration broke that silence with new, promising data from its first results based on 34 days of data-taking between November 2016 and January 2017. While no WIMPs or dark matter candidate signals were officially detected, the team did announce a record low reduction in the background radioactivity levels being picked up by XENON1T. The exclusion limits exceeded the previous best limits set by the LUX experiment, with an exclusion of cross sections larger than 7.7 x 10−47 cm2 for WIMP masses of 35 GeV/c2. Because some signals that the detector receives might be due to neutrons, this new radioactivity reduction lessens the chance that future detections will be caused less by well-known particles (e.g. neutrons) and more by the sought-after WIMPs.

Future Directions
Despite studying inherently 'dark' matter, the future seems bright for dark matter detector development. The "Dark Side Program" is a consortium that has conducted and continues to develop new experiments based on condensed atmospheric argon (LAr), instead of xenon, liquid. One recent Dark Side apparatus, the Dark Side-50 (DS-50), employs a method known as "two-phase liquid argon time projection chambers (LAr TPCs)," which allows for three-dimensional determination of collision event positions created by the electrolumnescence created by argon collisions with dark matter particles. The Dark Side program released its first results on its findings in 2015, so far being the most sensitive results for argon-based dark matter detection. LAr-based methods used for future apparatuses present an alternative to xenon-based detectors and could potentially lead to new, more sensitive multi-ton detectors in the near future.

XENON1T
Gran Sasso National Laboratory (Italy), Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz (Germany), Columbia University (USA), Max-Planck-Institut fur Kernphysik (Germany), Rice University (USA), SUBATECH, Universite de Nantes (France), University of Bologna and INFN-Bologna (Italy), University of California – Los Angeles (USA), University of California – San Diego (USA), University of Coimbra (Portugal), University of Münster (Germany), University of Zurich (Switzerland), Nikhef (Netherlands), Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), Purdue University (USA), University of Bern (Switzerland) Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (USA) Stockholm University (Sweden) New York University Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates) University of Chicago (USA)

XENON100
Columbia University (USA), Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz (Germany), Gran Sasso National Laboratory (Italy), Max-Planck-Institut fur Kernphysik (Germany), Rice University (USA), SUBATECH, Universite de Nantes (France), University of Bologna and INFN-Bologna (Italy), University of California – Los Angeles (USA), University of Coimbra (Portugal), University of Münster (Germany), University of Zurich (Switzerland), Nikhef (Netherlands), Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), Purdue University (USA), University of Bern (Switzerland), Shanghai Jiao Tong University (China) Stockholm University (Sweden) New York University Abu Dhabi (United Arab Emirates) University of Chicago (USA)

XENON10
Brown (USA), Case Western Reserve (USA), Columbia University (USA), Gran Sasso National Laboratory (Italy), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (USA), Rice University (USA), University of Coimbra (Portugal), University of Zurich (Switzerland), Yale (USA)

Second article:
= Hot dark matter = From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Hot dark matter (HDM) is a theoretical form of dark matter which consists of particles that travel with ultrarelativistic velocities.

Dark matter is a form matter that neither emits nor absorbs light. Within physics, this behavior is characterized by dark matter not interacting with electromagnetic radiation, hence making it dark and rendering it undetectable via conventional instruments in physics. Data from galaxy rotation curves indicate that approximately 80% of the mass of a galaxy cannot be seen, forcing researchers to innovate ways that indirectly detect it through dark matter's effects on gravitational fluctuations. There exists no concensus in the theoretical physics community as to whether dark matter is divisible into various 'types,' but there exists evidence for differentiating dark matter into "hot" (HDM) and "cold" (CDM) types–some even suggesting a middle-ground of "warm" dark matter (WDM). The terminology is not meant to invoke any association with temperature, but instead refer to the size of the purported dark matter particles (WIMPs). In turn, the size of the particles determines the velocities at which they travel at in an inverse relationship: HDM travels faster than CDM because the HDM particles are theorized to be of lower mass.

Role in Galaxy Formation
In terms of its application, the distribution of HDM could also help explain how clusters and superclusters of galaxies formed after the Big Bang. Theorists claim that there exist two classes of dark matter: 1) those that "congregate around individual members of a cluster of visible galaxies" and 2) those that encompass "the clusters as a whole." Because CDM possesses a lower velocity, it could be the source of "smaller, galaxy-sized lumps," as shown in the image. HDM, then, should correspond to the formation of larger mass aggregates that surround whole galaxy clusters. However, data from the cosmic microwave background radiation, as measured by the COBE satellite, is highly uniform, and such high-velocity HDM particles cannot form clumps as small as galaxies beginning from such a smooth initial state, highlighting a discrepancy in what dark matter theory and the actual data are saying. Theoretically, in order to explain relatively small-scale structures in the observable Universe, it is necessary to invoke CDM or WDM. In other words, HDM being the sole substance in explaining cosmic galaxy formation is no longer viable, placing HDM under the larger umbrella of mixed dark matter (MDM) theory.

Contents
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 * 1Neutrinos
 * 2See also
 * 3References
 * 4Further reading
 * 5External links

Neutrinos[edit | edit source]
An example of a hot dark matter particle is the neutrino.[citation needed] Neutrinos have very small masses, and do not take part in two of the four fundamental forces, the electromagnetic interaction and the strong interaction. They theoretically interact by the weak interaction, and gravity, but due to the feeble strength of these forces, they are difficult to detect. A number of projects, such as the Super-Kamiokande neutrino observatory, in Gifu, Japan are currently studying these neutrinos.

See also[edit | edit source]

 * Lambda-CDM model
 * Modified Newtonian Dynamics

References[edit | edit source]

 * 1) ^ Jump up to:a b

External links[edit | edit source]

 * Hot dark matter by Berkeley
 * Dark Matter