User:Gymshark4321/Discrimination based on skin color

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Discrimination based on skin color, also known as colorism or shadeism, is a form of prejudice and discrimination in which people of certain ethnic groups or people who are perceived as belonging to a darker-skinned race are treated differently based on their darker skin color.

Colorism focuses on how racism has manifested itself in the psychology of a people, and how it affects their concept of beauty, wealth, and privilege. A key difference between racism and colorism is that while racism deals with the subjugation of one group by another or the belief in racial supremacy, colorism deals with in-group discrimination in addition to between-group discrimination.

Research has uncovered extensive evidence of discrimination based on skin color in criminal justice, business, the economy, housing, health care, media, and politics in the United States and Europe. '''In addition, there has been research that evidently shows biases based on skin color in the educational system. Students of color are facing higher education costs, and inequalities in advanced programs and are targeted by their teachers or peers of other marginalized groups. Lighter skin tones are seen as preferable in many countries in Africa, Asia and South America. '''

Although less historically significant, prejudice can also be applied towards lighter-skinned people, which is known as reverse colourism.

Education

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that integrated, equal schools be accessible to all children unbiased to skin color. Currently in the United States, not all state funded schools are equally funded. Schools are funded by "federal, state, and local governments" while "states play a large and increasing role in education funding." "Property taxes support most of the funding that local government provides for education." Schools in lower income areas get less funding than schools in higher income areas, because all funding for education is based on property taxes. The U.S. Department of Education reports, "many high-poverty schools receive less than their fair share of state and local funding, leaving students in high-poverty schools with fewer resources than schools which are attended by their wealthier peers." The U.S. Department of Education also says this fact affects "more than 40% of low-income schools". Children of color are much more likely to suffer from poverty than white children. '''Furthermore, an article from 2015 informs that since black students finance their education through debt the chances of them receiving a college degree worsen. And because education does not lead to economic equality for Black employees, the excessive deficit that black students are taking on to pay for their education is widening the wealth disparity between races. The statistics from the article show the average white college graduate has more than seven times as much wealth as the average black graduate. Therefore, students of color are more likely to have lower educational outcomes because of the wealth differences.'''

A 2015 study which used correspondence tests "found that when they are considering requests from prospective students who are seeking mentoring in the future, faculty were significantly more responsive to White males than they were to all other categories of students, collectively, particularly in higher-paying disciplines and private institutions." Through affirmative action, elite colleges consider a broader range of experiences for minority applicants.

A 2016 study in the journal PNAS found that blacks and Hispanics were systemically underrepresented in education programs for gifted children where teachers and parents referred students to those programs; when a universal screening program which was based on IQ was used to refer students, the disparity was significantly reduced. '''An article from 2000 mentions the inequalities students of color have when accessing advanced classes or programs for gifted students. The authors analyzed how high minority schools offer less advanced courses than schools that serve large white populations of students.  Thus, these statistics show how this issue is ongoing and has not been minimized.'''

The phrase "brown paper bag test", or paper bag party, along with the "ruler test" refers to a ritual which was once done by certain African-American sororities and fraternities which would not let anyone into the group if his or her skin was darker than a brown paper bag. Spike Lee's film School Daze satirized this practice at historically black colleges and universities. Along with the "paper bag test", guidelines for acceptance among the lighter ranks included the "comb test" and the "pencil test", which tested the coarseness of one's hair, and the "flashlight test", which tested a person's profile in order to make sure that their features measured up or were close enough to those of the Caucasian race.

A 2013 study used spectrophotometer readings to quantify the skin color of respondents. White women experience discrimination in education, with those women having darker skin graduating from college at lower rates than those women with lighter skin. This precise and repeatable test of skin color revealed that white women experience skin color discrimination in education at levels which are consistent with the levels of skin color discrimination which are experienced by African-Americans. White men are not affected in this way.

Health section was edited by Strawberries30

Health
A 2019 review of the literature in the Annual Review of Public Health found that structural racism, cultural racism, and individual-level discrimination are "a fundamental cause of adverse health outcomes for racial/ethnic minorities and racial/ethnic inequities in health." A 2020 study found that black healthcare workers experience racial discrimination, which increased racial harassment and firing rates while decreased promotional opportunities.

''A 2020 interview study found that black technicians were treated differently compared to the white technicians. When performing a simple procedure, patients were more likely to object to a black technician's work and question their credentials than to a white technician's.''

A 1999 study found that doctors treat black and white patients differently, even when their medical files were statistically identical. When shown patient histories and asked to make judgments about heart disease, the doctors were much less likely to recommend cardiac catheterization (a helpful procedure) to black patients. A 2015 study found that pediatricians were more likely to undertreat appendicitis pain in black children than white children. A 2017 study found that medical staff which was treating anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries perceived black collegiate athletes as having higher pain tolerance than white athletes. A study by University of Toronto and Ohio State University economists found substantial evidence of racial discrimination against black veterans in terms of medical treatment and awarding of disability pensions in the late 19th and early 20th century; the discrimination was substantial enough to account for nearly the entire black-white mortality gap in the period. A 2019 study in Science found that one widely used algorithm to assess health risks falsely concluded that "Black patients are healthier than equally sick White patients", thus leading health care providers to provide lower levels of care for black patients. A 2020 study found that "when Black newborns are cared for by Black physicians, the mortality penalty they suffer, as compared with White infants, is halved."

A 2018 ProPublica analysis found that African Americans and Native Americans were underrepresented in clinical trials of new drugs. Fewer than 5% of patients were African-American, even though they make up 13.4% of the total US population. African-Americans were even underrepresented in trials involving drugs intended for diseases that disproportionately affect African-Americans. As a result, African-Americans who had exhausted all other treatments have weaker access to experimental treatments.

Studies have argued that there are racial disparities in how the media and politicians act when they are faced with cases of drug addiction in which the victims are primarily black rather than white, citing the examples of how society responded differently to the crack epidemic than it responded to the opioid epidemic.

The biases that underrepresentation of dark skin tone images creates ultimately exacerbates disparities in dermatologic outcomes between patient populations with light and dark skin tones. Furthermore, racial discrimination between healthcare workers is also important due to its linkage to mental health and job satisfaction.