User:HPL2023/sandbox/Engineering Ethics

Introduction
This article introduces the diversity in engineering ethics and reflection on current ethics. By the end of this article the reader should:


 * Have a basic understanding of the concepts of macroethics and microethics
 * Learn about the state of ethics in different cultural contexts
 * Reflect on how to improve the diversity of ethics
 * Know about the related cases in different countries and failures due to social effects
 * Have an overview of what has constituted the ethics of engineering in different cultures and at different times in history
 * Have an overview of how engineering ethics concerns might differ between the different branches of engineering
 * Be familiar with some general concepts from ethics that are especially applicable with problems arising in engineering
 * Know about some case studies showcasing how engineering ethics problems arise in practice

Engineering ethics is the study of ethics applied to problems from engineering. Engineering is a field that has a profound impact on modern society. From the buildings we live and work in, to the transportation we use to get around, to the technology we use to communicate and access information, engineers play a critical role in shaping our world. As such, it is essential that engineers consider the ethical implications of their work.

Consider the impact of transportation on modern society. Engineers have designed and built everything from cars to airplanes to trains, which have revolutionized the way we move around the world. However, these advancements have also brought about ethical considerations, such as the impact of transportation on the environment, the safety of passengers, and the accessibility of transportation to different communities.

History
The history of engineering ethics can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where individuals were expected to adhere to certain moral codes and principles in their professional and personal lives. However, the formal study and development of engineering ethics as a field began in the mid-20th century, in response to growing concerns about the ethical implications of technological advancements.

Concepts
Before discussing about the cultural diversity and the social impact of engineering ethics, we need to clarify two concepts first: Macroethics and Microethics. They cover different scale of engineering ethics.


 * Macroethics: ethics which includes broader ethical considerations of the profession and the societal impacts of engineering, including sustainability and social justice.


 * Microethics: with a focus on individual responsibility and day-to-day ethical decisions, such as not accepting bribes and working within your area of competence

While Microethics is more or less the same in different countries, calling on engineers to perform their duties in engineering design and decision-making, Microethics is distinguished in cultural contexts.

Theory
A simplified model of how to apply engineering ethics to make decisions may read like the following:


 * 1) Identify the problem: Engineers must first identify the ethical issue at hand.
 * 2) Gather information: They should gather all relevant information about the issue, including legal requirements and the potential consequences of various actions.
 * 3) Identify stakeholders: Engineers should consider the interests of all stakeholders who may be affected by the decision.
 * 4) Evaluate options: They should consider various options for addressing the issue and evaluate each one based on its ethical implications.
 * 5) Make a decision: Based on the evaluation, engineers should make a decision and be prepared to justify it.
 * 6) Take action: Finally, engineers should take action and implement their decision

Comparison of ethics education
Due to the increasing impact of globalization, it has become crucial for engineers to be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to work in an international environment. However, the way engineering ethics are taught varies across different countries, resulting in different understandings of the significance of ethics in engineering.

In the UK
Engineering ethics education in the UK emphasizes the importance of plagiarism and honesty. Students are taught to understand the significance of original work and are expected to uphold high standards of integrity in their professional practice. However, there is comparatively less emphasis on respect for life, law, and public welfare. The focus is on individual rights and responsibilities, with an emphasis on learning on the job. This approach aims to develop engineers who are well-prepared to take on real-world challenges and who can navigate complex professional environments.

In the US
Engineering ethics education in the USA places significant emphasis on professional codes, safety, and ethics in design. These areas of study are critical for developing engineers who can produce reliable and safe systems and structures. However, there is less attention given to the broader mission of engineering, such as the responsibility to society and the environment. Professional societies and licensing play a significant role in shaping engineering education in the USA, with a focus on preparing students to meet the needs of industry and business.

In non-US Anglo Countries
Engineering ethics education in non-US Anglo countries emphasizes the importance of professional practice, sustainability, environmental protection, and risk issues. In Canada, for example, there are robust macroethical criteria that include sustainable design and development, environmental stewardship, and ethics and equity. In Australia, the accreditation criteria include social, cultural, ethical, legal, political, economic, and environmental responsibilities, as well as sustainable development principles. These areas of study are critical for developing engineers who can address the complex ethical challenges facing modern society.

In Western Europe
In Western Europe, there is less emphasis on ethics in design and safety compared to the USA. However, sustainability, environmental protection, and the societal impact of technology are given greater importance. Engineers in Western Europe are expected to take into account the social, economic, and environmental implications of their work and to work towards developing sustainable solutions. In the Netherlands, for example, the title of "engineer" is an academic title with two types of degrees based on the institution. Schools for higher professional education grant B.Eng. degrees with a four-year curriculum, while technical universities grant M.Sc. degrees with a five-year curriculum. In Portugal, university education emphasizes scientific training, while polytechnic education has a vocational focus.

In Latin America
In South America, engineering ethics education is heavily influenced by the popular education movement, which emphasizes the importance of education that is grounded in the everyday experiences and struggles of people. There is a growing recognition of the need to address ethical issues in engineering, such as the promotion of social justice and human rights. However, compared to other regions, there is less attention given to sustainability in practice. Efforts are being made to address this gap, and some universities and institutions have started to focus on sustainability and social responsibility as part of their engineering curricula. Nevertheless, there is still a long way to go to ensure that engineers in South America are fully equipped to address the ethical challenges of the modern world.

In summary, the emphasis on different aspects of engineering ethics education varies across different countries. While some countries focus on professional codes, safety, and ethics in design, others prioritize sustainability, environmental protection, and the societal impact of technology. It is essential for engineers to be equipped with a comprehensive understanding of engineering ethics to work effectively in an international environment.

Social aspects of engineering ethics
Social aspects of engineering ethics play a significant role in ensuring that engineers consider the broader impact of their work on society. Engineering projects can have far-reaching social implications, and it is essential to consider these implications when developing engineering solutions. In many cases, engineering failures can occur not because of technical issues but because of social impacts. For example, a project may have been technically sound, but if it generates racial hatred or suppresses the rights of poor people, it is a failure from a social perspective.

To ensure that engineering solutions are socially responsible, engineering ethics must pay attention to the interests of minorities, including race and social status. The majority should not be sacrificed for the benefit of a few individuals or groups. The ethical principle of justice requires that engineering solutions consider the interests of all individuals and groups, including the marginalized and vulnerable. Engineers should also be aware of their own biases and prejudices that may influence their work and ensure that their solutions are free from discrimination and bias.

Another crucial aspect of social engineering ethics is the consideration of local situations and demands. Engineering solutions must be tailored to meet the specific needs and circumstances of the local community. Cultural, social, and economic factors should be taken into account when developing engineering solutions to ensure that they are appropriate and effective. Engineers must engage with local communities to understand their needs and concerns, and they should seek input and feedback from these communities throughout the design and implementation phases of the project.

Case studies
This part is designed to display engineering failures happened in different regions. Based on these cases, analysis and thinking about engineering ethics are encouraged for people from different countries. Also, we try to explain the social failure of a project with the last case. The reader is strongly encouraged to use them as exercises in applying the material of the Theory section.

Case Study: The collapse of the Quebec Bridge (North America)


The Quebec Bridge was a cantilever bridge across the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, Canada. During construction in 1907, the bridge collapsed, killing 75 workers. The cause of the collapse was attributed to a flawed design and inadequate safety measures.

Questions

 * Q: How did the design flaws go unnoticed during the construction of the Quebec Bridge, and what could have been done to prevent the collapse? A: The bridge collapsed due to the failure of the "compression chords," which were designed to support the weight of the structure. This was due to a design flaw in which the chords were too thin and could not withstand the stresses of the bridge's weight and the wind.
 * Q: What are the responsibilities of the engineers and contractors involved in the project, and how should they be held accountable for the failure? A: The ethical considerations that should have been taken into account include ensuring the safety of the workers and the public who would use the bridge, adhering to engineering standards and codes, and taking into account the long-term maintenance of the bridge. The decision to use thinner compression chords to save money may have violated some of these considerations.
 * Q: What measures can be put in place to ensure that the safety of workers and the public is prioritized over cost and efficiency in construction projects? A: The bridge collapse could have been prevented by ensuring that the compression chords were designed and constructed according to engineering standards and codes, conducting regular inspections of the bridge, and addressing any issues found during inspections. The construction company could have also prioritized safety and ethical considerations over cost-cutting measures.

The Hindenburg Disaster (Europe)


The Hindenburg was a German airship that caught fire and crashed in New Jersey, USA in 1937, killing 36 people. The disaster was caused by a combination of design flaws, manufacturing defects, and the use of flammable hydrogen gas as a lifting agent.

Questions

 * Q: How did the engineers involved in the design of the Hindenburg fail to consider the risks associated with the use of flammable gas, and what could have been done to prevent the disaster? A: The Hindenburg Disaster was caused by the ignition of hydrogen gas that was used to lift the airship. The exact cause of the ignition is still unknown, but it is believed to have been caused by a spark, static electricity, or a lightning strike.
 * Q: What ethical considerations should be taken into account when designing and testing new technologies, particularly those that have the potential to cause harm to people and the environment? A: The Hindenburg Disaster was caused by the ignition of hydrogen gas that was used to lift the airship. The exact cause of the ignition is still unknown, but it is believed to have been caused by a spark, static electricity, or a lightning strike.
 * Q: What role do engineering codes of ethics and professional standards play in ensuring that engineers are held accountable for their actions and decisions, and how can these be strengthened to prevent similar disasters from occurring in the future? A: The Hindenburg Disaster could have been prevented by using helium instead of hydrogen as a lifting agent, which would have reduced the risk of a catastrophic fire. The design of the airship could have also been improved to include better safety features, such as fire suppression systems and emergency escape routes.

The Banqiao Dam failure in China (Asia)
The Banqiao Dam was a large dam in Henan province, China, that failed during a severe typhoon in 1975, causing widespread flooding and the deaths of an estimated 171,000 people. The failure was caused by a combination of poor design, inadequate construction techniques, and lack of attention to the local climate and geography.

Questions

 * Q: How did the engineers and government officials involved in the construction and management of the Banqiao Dam fail to account for the local climate and geography, and what lessons can be learned from this failure? A: The engineers and government officials involved in the Banqiao Dam project failed to account for the local climate and geography by underestimating the potential for extreme weather events and overestimating the capacity of the dam. Lessons learned include the need for accurate risk assessments, proper maintenance and monitoring, and the importance of community involvement in decision-making processes.
 * Q: What ethical responsibilities do engineers and government officials have in ensuring that infrastructure projects are designed and constructed to withstand extreme weather events and other natural disasters? A: Engineers and government officials have an ethical responsibility to ensure that infrastructure projects are designed and constructed to withstand extreme weather events and other natural disasters, in order to protect the safety and well-being of the public. This includes following relevant codes and standards, conducting thorough risk assessments, and prioritizing safety over cost and schedule considerations.
 * Q: What measures can be put in place to ensure that the interests of local communities and the environment are given equal weight to economic and political considerations in infrastructure development? A: To ensure that the interests of local communities and the environment are given equal weight to economic and political considerations in infrastructure development, measures such as community engagement, environmental impact assessments, and the inclusion of sustainability criteria in project evaluations can be put in place. Additionally, regulations and standards that prioritize safety and sustainability over economic and political interests can be implemented and enforced.

Synagogue Church building collapse (Africa)
It is the collapse of the Synagogue Church of All Nations guesthouse in Lagos, Nigeria, in 2014, which killed over 100 people. The cause of the collapse was attributed to poor design and construction practices, including the use of substandard materials and lack of proper supervision.

Questions

 * Q: How can engineering professionals ensure that construction projects in developing countries are held to the same safety and quality standards as those in more developed countries? A: To ensure that construction projects in developing countries are held to the same safety and quality standards as those in more developed countries, engineering professionals can participate in capacity building programs, provide technical assistance and knowledge transfer, and engage with local regulatory bodies to promote the adoption and enforcement of international standards.
 * Q: What ethical considerations should be taken into account when working on projects in areas with weaker regulatory frameworks and governance structures? A: When working on projects in areas with weaker regulatory frameworks and governance structures, engineering professionals should prioritize the safety and well-being of local communities and consider the potential impact of their work on the environment and social fabric of the area. They should also be aware of cultural differences and potential power imbalances, and work to promote equity and respect for local customs and values.
 * Q: How can local communities be involved in the planning and implementation of infrastructure projects to ensure that their needs and interests are taken into account? A: Local communities can be involved in the planning and implementation of infrastructure projects by promoting participatory approaches that encourage community engagement and decision-making. This can involve providing education and training opportunities to help community members understand the technical aspects of the project, ensuring that local voices are heard and taken into account in project design and implementation, and establishing grievance mechanisms to address any concerns or disputes that may arise during the project lifecycle.

Robert Moses and His Racist Parkway (Social effect)
Robert Moses was a prominent urban planner and builder in New York City who spearheaded the construction of numerous infrastructure projects in the mid-20th century, including the creation of several parkways. However, these parkways were designed with low bridges that made them inaccessible to public buses, with the intention of keeping poorer, non-white people out of the surrounding areas. This policy has been described as racist and has had long-lasting effects on the communities affected.

Questions

 * Q: How do infrastructure projects that are designed to exclude certain groups from certain areas violate principles of social justice and fairness? A: Infrastructure projects that are designed to exclude certain groups from certain areas violate principles of social justice and fairness by perpetuating existing inequalities and reinforcing discriminatory practices.
 * Q: What ethical considerations should engineers and other professionals take into account when working on projects that are likely to have a significant impact on marginalized communities, and how can they ensure that their work is done in a socially responsible and equitable way? A: Engineers and other professionals should take into account the potential social impact of their work, and ensure that their projects are designed and implemented in a socially responsible and equitable way. They should consider the interests and needs of all members of society, especially marginalized and vulnerable communities, and work to mitigate any negative impacts on these groups. Additionally, they should be aware of their own biases and work to ensure that their work is free from discrimination and prejudice.

See also this list of other case studies. We encourage the reader to read up on a few of this and try to apply the framework of engineering ethics to them