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Concepts of Media Freedom
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Concepts of Media Freedom
Concepts of Media freedom (also concepts of press freedom) are an object of study within media system research. Discussions of media freedom are deeply rooted in political science and mass communication literature. In practice, media freedom is a human right enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

''Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers. '' In the context of economic liberalization and the emergence of a free market in Britain concepts of media freedom were developed. Independent information was seen as a necessary condition for free trade. But concepts of media freedom understand media freedom not only as freedom from (e.g. government control), but also as freedom to (e.g. report, convey). Concepts of media freedom are a normative framework examining media freedom out of different perspectives. Media freedom consists of three main conditions: (1) Media Independence (2) Free Access to Media (3) Freedom of Expression These conditions are the crucial structural aspects for an effective media freedom, and are associated with the institutional, the citizens’ and the professional perspective.

Conditions and Perspectives of Media Freedom
=Media Independence=

Conventionally, media freedom is understood primarily as freedom from government control. According to Denis McQuail, media independence is “a feature of real independence from excessive control and interference by state, is beyond political or economic interests. ” This definition of media independence describes media freedom on the institutional level. Early definitions of press freedom focus primarily on freedom from government control. In their classic work Four Theories of the Press, Siebert, Petersen and Schramm (1956) identify four models or theoretical types of media. In the authoritarian model the government controls the press through censorship and punishment after publication. ‘The Soviet Communist model is only a further development of the much older authoritarian type’. In the libertarian theory the press is not an instrument of government, but rather a device for presenting evidence and arguments. The libertarian model is a modification of the so-called Social Responsibility theory, which states that media have obligations to society (e.g. act like the Fourth Estate, enlighten the public, give chances to the public to express their views). According to Lowenstein (1970), a completely free press is one in which media have absolute independence and critical ability. The press has no concentrated ownership, but is rather self-regulated. Weaver (1977) also mentioned the independence of media as an important aspect. He distinguished three components of press freedom: the relative absence of government restraints on the media, the relative absence of nongovernmental restraints, and the existence of conditions to insure the dissemination of diverse ideas and opinions to large audiences. In summary, independence of media can be described by the absence of censorship, licensing or other controls by government, allowing for an unhindered right to publish and the dissemination of news and opinions.

=Free Access to Media=

Freedom from government control alone does not guarantee the free exchange of information. Another condition of media freedom is free access to media channels and content by everyone, representing a citizens’ perspective. According to McQuail, the concept of media freedom includes the degree of freedom enjoyed by the media and the degree of freedom of the access of citizens to media content. This leads to the question, ‘who receives access to which channels’? The answer depends on the number of independent media channels which are available in a media system. In an independent media system unlimited access to these channels is necessary to receive diverse kinds of information. Thereby the principle of diversity stands very close to the concept of free media access. Diversity of media channels and diversity of media content are identified as major benefits of media freedom: the more channels and the more differentiated they are, the more diversity. Opening the way for social and cultural change and giving access to new, powerless voices are important aspects of the principle of diversity. Free media access should be an equal right, providing the possibility for citizens to have access to channels of expression and publication. For instance, in Jordan, the existence of Al Jazeera substantially influences the information content. Citizens perceive their rather controlled domestic press more neutral, because they have access to diverse transnational press.

=Freedom of Expression=

The third condition for media freedom is freedom of expression. This term refers to freedom of expression for professionals (e.g. journalists) and citizens, and is therefore taking on a professional and citizens’ perspective. In the history of the press, the pursuit of freedom of expression and publication has been intimately connected with democracy. It is essential to distinguish between freedom of the press and freedom of expression. The latter refers to the content of what is communicated (opinions, ideas, information, art etc.) whereas freedom of the press refers to the main topic. Breunig (1994) also distinguishes between press freedom and freedom of communication. In his opinion, press freedom is one type of freedom of communication. Others types are freedom of speech, freedom of opinion and freedom of information – subcategories of freedom of expression. ‘In this view, independent media also allow individuals to find a public forum in which to express opinions, beliefs and viewpoints to their fellow citizens and they inform, entertain and enrich the lives of the citizens through the profusion of ideas, opinions and visions. Free and independent media also provide a platform for an expression of opinions so that meaningful decisions can be made to guarantee access to the less privileged in society, giving them a voice’ (Becker et al. 2011).

Negative and Positive Press Freedom
Government control is a contentious issue in the debate of media freedom. Here, John Merrill and Robert G. Picard are opposing each other. For Merrill media freedom has to be based on autonomy, not on regulation. However, Picard argues for greater government intervention. He assumes that the number of newspapers has declined to a point which leads to complexity and confusion so that the active participation in a democratic society is in danger. Therefore government intervention has become necessary. Picard offered an additional theory to those presented in Four Theories of the Press. He distinguishes between negative and positive press freedom. Negative press freedom is characterized by the ‘absence of legal and political prohibitions, the absence of censorship and of institutions denying average citizens the opportunity of printing and diffusing their opinions’. Positive freedom of the press refers to ‘the effective material capacity of individuals to have their opinions printed and circulated.’ Therefore he demands a positive press freedom, under which the government would intervene in media economics to ensure the freedom of expression. This must be seen in contrast to the traditional liberal concept of media freedom, suggesting that a free press is able to strengthen the process of democratization and human development in its watchdog role. In his opinion, positive press freedom, which is characterized by governmental intervention, supports conditions that allow for an independent exchange of ideas. According to Joseph Russomanno (2008), the positive perspective of press freedom is practised in many nations in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In this case, press freedom is actively promoted – for example through regulations that enable the press to attain its goals.

Media Freedom and Democracy
In its simplest terms, press freedom has been viewed as a characteristic of the nation state, linked to the ideas of democratization, extension of civil liberties and government transparency. Definitions of media freedom assume that media freedom is an essential component of democracy. Liberal theorists from John Locke to John Stuart Mill assert that free and independent press plays a vital role in the process of democratization. In general, media have the following normative functions, reflecting varying aspects of democratic practice to : - be the main source of information - serve as a watchdog - prevent misuse - provide a forum for exchange of opinion and criticism

Therefore, media freedom also plays an important political role. A transformation from more authoritarian societies to more democratic ones is possible. Beata Rozumilowicz (2002) also argued that a media structure that is free of interference from government, business or dominant social groups is better able to support the ‘competitive and participative elements that define democracy’. These assumptions are scientifically proven by many studies which attempted to measure the indicators of press freedom. The aim was it to find out which indicators have a relationship to press freedom. The study of Pippa Norris and Dieter Zinnbauer (2002), which compared 135 countries, suggested that free and independent mass media have a positive impact on democratization and human development. The results confirm that the indicators for good government are strongly and significantly related to media access and press freedom. Countries where the public has access to free press have a greater political stability, rule of law, government efficiency and less corruption. Thus, media freedom can assumed to be a constituent of democracy. Peter T. Leeson

Limitations of the Concepts of Media Freedom
These conditions of media freedom leave many issues unresolved. There are several conflicts embedded in these requirements: •	Media freedom can never be unrestricted. An absolute fulfillment of the normative functions is impossible. Merely, a country can approach to these conditions. The closer a country approaches these conditions the higher is its degree of media freedom. •	The conditions often are not related to each other. In China, for example, despite controls, filters and censorship, there is a vibrant and pervasive usage of the internet. •	Although, Finland receives a high ranking in the Freedom House’ measures of press freedom every year, newspapers in Finland receive state subsidies. Therefore doubts arise concerning the concept of media independence in this country. •	‘But it is also frequently the case that even media that are independent from direct government control are tightly controlled and owned, often in concentrated fashion and often by individuals and entities connected to government figures.’ •	Private interests of actors in the media landscape can also be a limitation. •	There can be conflicts with owners of media channels, which do not recognize the rights of freedom of expression of those who work in the media (journalist, producers etc.) •	Concepts of media freedom are mainly rooted in the Western tradition. Nations all over the word have a different understanding of media freedom. In strongly religious-orientated states, the media almost voluntarily make a taboo out of numerous topics and events. In Turkey there is paragraph 301 of the penal law, which assesses ‘defamation of Turkishness’ as an element of offence.