User:Hampton.167/sandbox

user talk:Hampton.167/sandbox Annotated Bibilography

Boer, Sietse F. De, Doretta Caramaschi, Deepa Natarajan, and Jaap M. Koolhaas. "The Vicious Cycle Towards Violence: Focus on the Negative Feedback Mechanisms of Brain Serotonin Neurotransmission." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 20 Nov. 2009. Web. 14 Sept. 2014.

The authors of the article focus on the complexity of aggression and violence. The article gives a clear view to the neurological aspects of forms of aggression that are being studied clinically. The article also provides evidence for the mechanism of brain chemicals specifically serotonin and other brain components that play a role in the development of violent tendencies. Like other neurological studies this one too was conducted using animal models. The categorized form of aggression outlined in the article can be used to better understand aggression in animals.

Kraemer, GW, and AS Clarke. "The Behavioral Neurobiology of Self-Injurious Behavior in Rhesus Monkeys." Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry. 14 (1990): 141-68. Print.

Cramer and Clarke do a great job identifying the brain systems that play a role in aggression. The article specifically focuses on self-inflected injuries and how they come about in the neurobiological sense. The study shows how important early social interaction is in controlling aggressive behavior. This study was done in rhesus monkeys. The data found by this study will be useful in understanding not only aggression but self-inflected aggressive behaviors in animals. The study also can be used by drug companies and physiologist in understanding suicide and ways to prevent it.

Miczek, KA, Almeida R. M. de, EA Kravitz, EF Rissman, Boer S. F. de, and A Raine. "Neurobiology of Escalated Aggression and Violence." The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience. 27.44 (2007): 11803-6. Print.

This article not only examines the neurological aspects of aggression but distinguishes between males and females. The authors identify the components of the brain that effect aggression development such as serotonin. The study goes even further, examining the genetic basis for why aggression develops and what happens when genes are altered. The work done Miczek et al. can greatly contribute to our knowledge of how aggression develops and progress. The data found provides us with a fundamental basis with which to work from. Because this study was done using fruit flies it will be helpful in expanding work done on the neurobiology of violence in animals.

Natarajan, Deepa, and Doretta Caramaschi. "Animal violence demystified." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 05 Apr. 2010. Web. 14 Sept. 2014.

In Deepa and Caramaschi’s article they make important distinctions between violence and aggression. The article gives step by step the aspects and progression of violence or aggressive behaviors that we see. Deepa and Caramaschi’s study breaks down different ways violence/aggression can be brought about. Lastly the article does a great job at recognizing that one’s environment plays a role in behavior. This article will be helpful in accurately identifying which behavioral acts are violent and which are acts of aggression in animals. The study was modeled using mice, which makes it an excellent resource in evaluating the role neurobiology plays in violence seen in animals.

Veenema, Alexa H. "Early Life Stress, the Development of Aggression and Neuroendocrine and Neurobiological Correlates: What Can We Learn from Animal Models?" Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. Vol. 30. Issue 4, October 2009, Pages 497-518. Print.

Veenema’s article highlights the effect early life stress can have on aggressive behavior development. The study shows that individuals who lack care from their mother and interactions with others are at a higher risk of aggression. Veenema also notes that changes to specific components in the brain contribute to early stress and aggression.

This study used primates and rodents as models which is not uncommon. By first studying animals, scientists are able to collect a lot of data which can be later related to humans. Data from this article can be used to evaluate the neurology components effecting animal aggression. Some of the methods presented also provide a great look at how the field of neuroscience is evolving.

FINAL DRAFT STARTS HERE Violence is defined as rough or injurious physical force, action, or treatment; while the definition of aggression is any offensive action, attack, or procedure; an inroad or encroachment. Research has been done to determine just why such behaviors occur. Animal models are an important tool for researchers to use because they allow researchers to make inferences about human behaviors. Many aspects neurobiological play in a role in the development of violent and aggressive tendencies. A few will be described here. It is important to note that both invertebrate and vertebrate species are cable of displaying and experiencing aggression mainly in certain times of conflict. By studying the complexity of these displays including their implications and phylogeny we can then have a basis for neurobiological investigations. Miczek et al. (2007) importantly noted that aggressive behaviors are not shared by both males and females. Studies have shown that some behaviors are sexually dimorphic meaning that an individual’s sex will affect its aggressive and violent tendencies. Most experimental models today use animal models as a way to highlight behavioral phenotypes that stray from normal behavior. These studies are useful because human escalated aggression can be explained by animal experimental models. Using the information gathered from aggression model experiments we can have a better understanding how these behaviors developed over time. Phylogeny helps to pinpoint the relationships of populations and their descendants. When examined with experimental data, phylogeny helps to determine how violence evolved into the behaviors we see today. One method to track the evolution of violence is to look at an individual’s genetic makeup. Studies show there is a genetic basis to how individuals learn to be aggressive. A study using D. melanogaster displays how the fruitless gene determines how flies behave during conflict. Manipulation of the gene can alter whether females fight similar to males or to other females. Some research also shows that sex chromosome genes may have an effect on aggressive devolvement. For example, the sex gene Sts found on the Y chromosome, though found in both sexes, is higher in females during lactation. This would exemplify aggressive behaviors of mothers over their offspring when they feel endangered or threatened (Miczek et al. 2007). In a similar experiment, Miczek et al. (2001) looked at the genetic components, specifically the phenotypes associated with aggressive behavior by comparing different types of fighting tactics to chromosomal mechanisms. Using house mice found in Italy with different numbers of chromosomal pairs (11, 12, 13 or 20) researchers determined there were differences in response time when the mice were introduced to an intruder Mice with 13 or 11 pairs tended to be more aggressive but attack less when fighting someone with the same number of chromosome pairs, as compared to mice with 12 or 20 pairs. Conversely when the opposition had a different number of chromosome pairs mice with 13 or 11 pairs were less aggressive. Looking more closely at the Y chromosome, the male specific part of this chromosome has an effect on aggressive offense in males; this is partially determined by the genetic makeup of the individual. These findings are important for mapping genes (Miczek et al 2001). Phenotype is the mode on which natural selection acts. Phenotypes related to aggression could have been brought about over time due to selective forces such as predation. Causing mice with 13 or 11 pairs to have an advantage in times of conflict but only when they encountered an opponent with the same number of chromosome pairs. Another way to track how violence evolved is by examining the neurobiology of aggressive individuals. Kremer and Clarke (1990), using rhesus monkeys as models, explored the neurobiology of self-injurious behavior (SIB). In determining the reason for individuals committing self-injurious acts, they found that this type of behavior is the result of the lack of social factors that would typically prevent them from occurring. However, once an individual has begun self-injurious activities then they are primary brought about not by their environment but by their neurobiology. Experimental data showed monkeys that lacked social interactions had malfunctions in their norepinephrine and serotonin systems (Kremer and Clarke 1990). A third factor that leads to violent behavior is the quality of life while young. Early life stress can lead to the development of impulsive aggression. Animal models can be particularly useful in determining which stressors affect aggression and its neurobiology. Vennma (2009) conducted an experiment using primate and rodent models. Similar to Kremer and Clarke’s findings (1990), animals that experienced low levels of social interactions with peers or lacked proper maternal care developed aggressive behaviors. The study goes to show that these animals had changes in their hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical (HPA), water retention system as well as their serotonin system. Here we will focus on HPA actively levels. In non-human primates HPA activity decreased when monkeys were socially deprived and when they lacked proper care starting at three months of age. In rodents, HPA activity was increased when they were exposed to social deprivation (Veenma 2009). This is important because it provides some understanding as to why children of divorced families and children living in shelter homes are more likely to act out, have anger problems as well as display destructive behaviors. Aggression is naturally an adaptive behavior. Hostility and anger turn into violence usually when they are misinterpreted or when the hostile or angry individual is expressing aggression in a way not in accordance for that species (Natarajan and Caramaschi 2010). Experiments using wild rats and mice describe under what circumstance aggression turns into violence. Aggressive behaviors tend to increase after the individual had prevailed in several aggressive encounters. Also after multiple social conflicts involving aggressive behavior can individuals can start to display offensive aggression. In examining highly aggressive rats and mice it was shown that they changed their beginning defensive aggressive behavior to a more violent method (Boer et al.2009). What could cause such a change in these animal models? The focus has been particularly on the neurotransmission of serotonin. Serotonin, more than any other neurotransmitter system has been found to contribute to the development of aggressive behavior. Serotonin concentrations in the brain are strongly positively correlated to animals learning aggressive behavior when engaged in mating, territory, and hierarchal conflicts. Serotonin has an inverse relationship when those individual are displaying violence. Boer et al. (2009) states that as aggression experiences increase there is a decrease in serotonin levels. Serotonin levels are lowed only after an individual has engaged in aggressive behaviors. This can be attributed to the changes in the release of serotonin by specific neurons called auto receptors. When exterminators exposed these auto receptors to agonist, chemicals that bind to the receptor to produce a desired reaction, aggressive behavior declined. This would indicate that by increasing receptor function is normal when the brain of an aggressive animal is in a heightened state. When this function is increased to much violent behavior can be seen (Boer et al.2009). In contrast, Baier et al. (2002) conducted an experiment using Drosophila. By creating multiple experimental groups consisting of six male flies and three mated females they were able to assess the effect of various treatments such as Serotonin, Octopamine, and mushroom bodies. The octopamine treatment group as well as flies with mushroom bodies had a significant reduction in aggression. This is thought to be due to the expression of receptors to these compounds. In addition, aggression was high for flies with high synaptic outputs suggesting there had been an insertion of a new gene. In terms of serotonin there were no observed effects which are different when compared to rat and mice experiments (Baier et al. 2002). In a similar study, octopamine levels were altered in the central nervous system. Octopamine is a biogenic amine that comes from food and is readily found in invertebrates. It can cause male flies to have trouble deciding how to interact with other males, that is whether or not to court or fight those (Baier et al. 2002). By defining which systems and chemicals of the brain influence the progression of aggression into violence we gain insight to the mechanism of which these behaviors work. Once we have a clear understanding as to why they occur we can work to develop methods to stop them from occurring. In conclusion social interactions with peers while young, proper maternal care, neurotransmitter systems notably the serotonin and octopamine, and genetics have been seen to effect the development of violent and aggressive behaviors. Animal models are useful in making inferences about human behaviors. By conduction experiments and tracking the phylogeny of organisms being studied we can conclude how violence has progressed in species and into the behaviors we see today. More research can be done examining other neurotransmitter systems and the function of other genes that affect behavior today.

FINAL DRAFT ENDS HERE

3 suggestions + 1 sentence and citation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience Evidence has shown the brain chemical serotonin plays a role in the development of violent tendencies.

A few things I think can be added: A lot of research has been done studying animals and how neurological aspects play a role their development of aggression/violence. expanding the history section to include current findings. Expanding and adding sections such as popular methods used in the field.

[refrences /]. . Boer, Sietse F. De, Doretta Caramaschi, Deepa Natarajan, and Jaap M. Koolhaas. "The Vicious Cycle Towards Violence: Focus on the Negative Feedback Mechanisms of Brain Serotonin Neurotransmission." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine