User:Hans Genten/Dairy Processing

Primary production of milk [1]
Cow milk 2 Secretion of milk 3 The lactation cycle 4 Milking 4 Hand milking 4 Machine milking 5 Chilling milk on the farm 5 Farm cooling equipment 6 Cleaning and sanitising 7 Frequency of delivery to the dairy 7 Sheep (ewe) milk 8 Yield and lactation period 8 Flock size 8 Secretion of milk 8 Milk fat 8 Protein 9 Some properties of sheep milk 9 Milking 9 Hand milking 9 Machine milking 10 Chilling of milk 10 Cleaning and sanitising 11 Goat milk 11 Yield and lactation period 11 Secretion of milk 12 Milking 12 Hand milking 12 Machine milking, cooling and storage 12

The chemistry of milk 13
Basic chemical concepts 14 Atoms 14 Ions 14 Molecules 14 Basic physical-chemical properties of cows’ milk 15 Definitions 15 Acidity of solutions 16 pH 16 Neutralisation 16 Diffusion 16 Osmosis 17 Reverse osmosis 17 Dialysis 17 Composition of cows’ milk 18 Milk fat 18 Chemical structure of milk fat 18 Melting point of fat 19 Iodine value 19 Refractive index 20 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 20 Fat crystallisation 20 Proteins in milk 21 Amino acids 21 The electrical status of milk proteins 22 Classes of milk proteins 22 Casein 23 Casein micelles 24 Precipitation of casein 25 Precipitation by acid 25 Precipitation by enzymes 26 Whey proteins 26 a-lactalbumin 26 b-lactoglobulin 26 Immunoglobulins and related minor proteins 27 Membrane proteins 27 Denatured proteins 27 Milk is a buffer solution 28 Enzymes in milk 28 Peroxidase 28 Catalase 28 Phosphatase 29 Lipase 29 Lactose 29 Vitamins in milk 30 Minerals and salts in milk 31 Other constituents of milk 31 Changes in milk and its constituents 31 Changes during storage 31 Oxidation of fat 31 Oxidation of protein 32 Lipolysis 32 Effects of heat treatment 32 Fat 32 Protein 33 Enzymes 33 Lactose 34 Vitamins 34 Minerals 34 Physical properties of milk 34 Appearance 34 Density 34 Osmotic pressure 35 Freezing point 35 Acidity 35 Titratable acidity 36 Colostrum 36

Rheology [37]
Definition 38 Characterisation of materials 38 Shearing 39 Newtonian fluids 39 Non-Newtonian fluids 40 Shear thinning flow behaviour 40 Shear thickening flow behaviour 40 Plastic flow behaviour 40 Thixotropic flow behaviour 40 Rheopectic flow behaviour 41 Anti-thixotropic flow behaviour 41 Flow behaviour models 41 Power law equation 41 Typical data 42 Measuring equipment 42 Measuring techniques 43 Pressure drop calculations 44 Circular ducts 44 Rectangular ducts 44

Micro-organisms [45]
Some milestones of microbiological history 45 Classification: Protista 46 Biotechnology 46 Bacteria 47 Morphology of bacteria 47 Shape of bacteria 47 Size of bacteria 47 Cell structure of bacteria 47 Mobility of bacteria 48 Spore formation and capsule formation 48 Conditions for growth of bacteria 48 Nutrients 48 Passage of matter through the cytoplasmic membrane 49 Temperature 49 Classification by temperature preference 50 Moisture 50 Oxygen 50 Light 51 Osmotic pressure 51 pH – acidity/alkalinity 51 Reproduction of bacteria 51 Rate of reproduction 51 Growth curve of bacteria 51 Biochemical activity 52 Breakdown of carbohydrates 52 Breakdown of protein 53 Breakdown of fat 53 Breakdown of lecithin 53 Pigment and colour production 53 Mucus production 54 Odour production 54 Reducing power 54 Disease production (Toxins) 54 Enumeration of bacteria 54 Identification and classification of bacteria 55 Bacteria in milk 55 Infection at the farm 55 Bacteria count in milk 55 Principal bacteria in milk 56 Lactic acid bacteria 56 Coliform bacteria 57 Butyric acid bacteria 57 Propionic acid bacteria 58 Putrefaction bacteria 58 Fungi 59 Yeasts 59 Reproduction of yeast 59 Conditions for the growth of yeast 60 Nutrients 60 Moisture 60 Acidity 60 Temperature 60 Oxygen 60 Classification of yeasts 60 Importance of yeast 60 Moulds 61 Reproduction of moulds 61 Metabolism of moulds 61 External factors affecting the growth of moulds 61 Moisture 61 Water activity (aw) 61 Oxygen 61 Temperature 61 Acidity 61 Importance of moulds in the dairy 62 Penicillium 62 Milk mould 62 Bacteriophages 62 Structure of bacteriophages 62 Reproduction of phages 63 Concluding notes 63

Collection and reception of milk [65]
Keeping the milk cool 66 Design of farm dairy premises 66 Delivery to the dairy 66 Churn collection 66 Bulk collection 67 Testing milk for quality 67 Taste and smell 68 Cleaning checks 68 Sediment tests 68 Hygiene or Resazurin tests 68 Somatic cell count 68 Bacteria count 68 Protein content 68 Fat content 68 Freezing point 68 Milk reception 69 Churn reception 69 Tanker reception 69 Measuring by volume 69 Measuring by weight 70 Tanker cleaning 71 Chilling the incoming milk 71 Raw milk storage 71 Agitation in silo tanks 71 Tank temperature indication 71 Level indication 71 Low-level protection 72 Overflow protection 72 Empty tank indication 72

Building-blocks of dairy processing [73]
Chapter 6.1 Heat exchangers 75 The purposes of heat treatment 75 Time/temperature combination 76 Limiting factors for heat treatment 76 Thermisation 76 LTLT pasteurisation 77 HTST pasteurisation 77 Milk 77 Cream and cultured products 77 Ultra pasteurisation 77 UHT treatment 78 Sterilisation 78 Preheating 78 Heat transfer processes in the dairy 78 Heating 78 Cooling 78 Regenerative heating and cooling 79 Heat transfer theory 79 Heat transfer principles 79 Direct heating 79 Indirect heating 80 The heat exchanger 80 Dimensioning data for a heat exchanger 80 Product flow rate 81 Physical properties of the liquids 81 Temperature program 81 Temperature change 81 Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) 82 Countercurrent flow 82 Concurrent flow 82 Overall heat transfer coefficient 82 Permitted pressure drops 82 Viscosity 83 Shape and thickness of the partition 83 Material of the partition 83 Precence of fouling matter 83 Cleanability requirement 84 Running time requirement 84 Regeneration 85 Holding 85 Calculation of holding time 85 Different types of heat exchangers 86 Plate heat exchangers 86 Flow patterns 87 Tubular heat exchangers 87 Multi/mono channel 87 Multi/mono tube 88 Scraped-surface heat exchanger 88 Chapter 6.2 Centrifugal separators and milk fat standardisation 91 Centrifugal separators 91 Some historical data 91 Sedimentation by gravity 92 Requirements for sedimentation 92 How does sedimentation work? 92 Density 92 Sedimentation and flotation velocity 93 Flotation velocity of a fat globule 93 Batch separation by gravity 94 Continuous separation by gravity 94 Baffles increase the capacity 94 Continuous separation of a solid phase and two liquid phases 95 Separation by centrifugal force 95 Sedimentation velocity 95 Flotation velocity of a fat globule 96 Continuous centrifugal separation of solid particles – Clarification 96 Separation channels 96 The limit particle 97 Continuous centrifugal separation of milk 97 Clarification 97 Separation 97 Skimming efficiency 98 Fat content of cream 98 Solids ejection 99 Basic design of the centrifugal separator 99 Semi-open design 99 Paring disc 99 Hermetic design 100 Control of the fat content in cream 101 Paring disc separator 101 Cream flow meter 101 Hermetic separator 101 Differences in outlet performance of hermetic and paring-disc separators 102 The discharge system 102 Production and CIP 102 Discharge 103 Drive units 103 Standardisation of fat content in milk and cream 104 Principle calculation methods for mixing of products 104 Principle of standardisation 104 Direct in-line standardisation 105 Cream fat control system 106 Cascade control 106 Fat control by density measurement 107 Flow transmitter 107 Flow control valves for cream and skimmilk 108 Control circuit for remixing of cream 108 The complete direct standardisation line 109 Some options for fat standardisation 110 The Bactofuge 110 Decanter centrifuges 111 The function of the decanter centrifuge 111 Solids discharge 112 Liquid discharge (open) 112 Liquid discharge (pressurised) 112 Continuous process 112 Principal components 112 The bowl 112 The conveyor 113 The gearbox 113 Frame and vessel 113 Chapter 6.3 Homogenisers 115 The technology behind disruption of fat globules 115 Process requirements 115 Flow characteristics 116 Homogenisation theories 116 Single-stage and two-stage homogenisation 116 Effect of homogenisation 116 The homogeniser 117 The high-pressure pump 117 The homogenisation device 118 Homogenisation efficiency 118 Analytical methods 119 Studies of creaming rate 119 Size distribution analysis 119 Energy consumption and influence on temperature 120 The homogeniser in a processing line 121 Full stream homogenisation 121 Partial homogenisation 121 Health aspects of homogenised milk products 122 Chapter 6.4 Membrane filters 123 Definitions 123 Membrane technology 123 Principles of membrane separation 125 Filtration modules 126 Plate and frame design 126 Tubular design – polymers 126 Tubular design – ceramic 126 Spiral-wound design 127 Hollow-fibre design 128 Separation limits for membranes 129 Material transport through the membrane 129 Pressure conditions 130 Principles of plant designs 130 Batch production 131 Continuous production 131 Processing temperature in membrane filtration applications 132 Chapter 6.5 Evaporators 133 Removal of water 133 Evaporation 133 Evaporator design 133 Circulation evaporators 134 Falling film evaporators 134 Tubular type evaporator 135 Plate type evaporator 135 Multiple-effect evaporation 136 Thermocompression 137 Evaporation efficiency 137 Mechanical vapour compression 138 Chapter 6.6 Deaerators 139 Air and gases in milk 139 Further air admixture 139 Air elimination at collection 140 Milk reception 140 Vacuum treatment 140 Deaeration in the milk treatment line 141 Chapter 6.7 Pumps 143 Pumping demands 143 Suction line 144 Delivery line 144 Cavitation 144 Pump chart 144 Head (pressure) 145 NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) 145 Shaft seals 145 Single mechanical seal 146 Flushed shaft seal 146 Material for shaft seals 146 Centrifugal pumps 146 Pumping principle 146 Centrifugal pump applications 147 Flow control 147 Throttling 147 Reducing impeller diameter 147 Speed control 148 Pumps for 60 Hz 148 Head and pressure 148 Density 148 Viscosity 149 Liquid-ring pumps 149 Applications 149 Positive displacement pumps 149 Pumping principle 149 Flow control 150 Pipe dimensions and lengths 150 Lobe-rotor pumps 150 Applications 150 Eccentric-screw pumps 150 Piston pumps 150 Diaphragm pumps 151 Working principle 151 Peristaltic pumps (hose pumps) 151 Chapter 6.8 Pipes, valves and fittings 153 The pipe system 153 Connections 153 Special pipe fittings 154 Sampling devices 154 Valves 154 Mixproof valve systems 154 Shut-off and change-over valves 155 Seat valves 155 Butterfly valves 156 Manual control 156 Automatic control 156 Mixproof valves 157 Position indication and control 158 Position indication only 158 The ultimate control 158 Check valves 158 Control valves 158 Valve systems 160 Pipe supports 160 Chapter 6.9 Tanks 161 Storage tanks 161 Silo tanks 161 Intermediate storage tanks 162 Mixing tanks 162 Process tanks 162 Balance tank 162 Chapter 6.10 Process control 165 Automation 165 What is automation? 165 Logic 166 Why do we need automatic process control? 166 What are the control tasks? 167 Digital control 167 Analog control 168 Monitoring 168 Management Information 168 What decides the level of automation? 169 Role of the operator 169 Colour graphic VDU 169 Printer terminal 169 Local operator units 169 How does the control system work? 170 The programmable control system 170 Demands on a control system 171 Extending a control system 171 Simple programming language 171 Efficient electronic solutions 171 Examples of control systems 172 The small Programmable Logic Controller 172 Decentralised process control 172 Total integrated plant control 173 Chapter 6.11 Service systems 175 Prerequisites for dairy processing 175 Water supply equipment 175 Water treatment 176 Piping system design 177 Heat production 177 Steam production 178 Steam boilers 178 Collecting the condensate 179 Other equipment 179 The steam piping system 179 Refrigeration 180 The principle of refrigeration 180 How refrigeration works 180 The evaporator 181 The compressor 182 The condenser 182 Other equipment 183 Production of compressed air 183 Demands on compressed air 183 The compressed-air installation 184 Air drying 184 Pipe system 185 Electric power 185 High voltage switchgear 185 Power transformer 186 Low voltage switchgear 186 Generating set 187 Motor control centres, MCC 187

Designing a process line [189]
Process design considerations 190 Some legal requirements 190 Equipment required 191 Choice of equipment 191 Silo tanks 191 Plate heat exchanger 192 Hot water heating systems 192 Temperature control 193 Holding 193 Pasteurisation control 193 Pasteuriser cooling system 193 Booster pump to prevent reinfection 193 The complete pasteuriser 194 Balance tank 194 Feed pump 194 Flow controller 195 Regenerative preheating 195 Pasteurisation 195 Flow diversion 195 Cooling 195 Centrifugal clarifier 196 Design of piping system 196 Laminar and turbulent flows 196 Flow resistance 196 Pressure drop 197 Process control equipment 198 Transmitters 198 Controllers 199 The regulating device 200 Automatic temperature control 200

Pasteurised milk products [201]
Processing of pasteurised market milk 202 Standardisation 204 Pasteurisation 204 Homogenisation 204 Determining homogenisation efficiency 205 Quality maintenance of pasteurised milk 205 Shelf life of pasteurised milk 206 “ESL” milk 207 Production of cream 207 Whipping cream 207 The whipping method 208 The whipping-cream production line 209 The Scania method 209 Half and coffee cream 211 Packaging 213

Long life milk [215]
Raw material quality 216 Sterilising efficiency 216 Logarithmic reduction of spores 216 Q10 value 217 F0 value 218 B* and C* values 218 “The fastest particle” 218 Commercial sterility 218 Chemical and bacteriological changes at high heat treatment 219 Shelf life 220 Nutritional aspects 220 Production of long life milk 221 In-container sterilisation 221 Batch processing 221 Continuous processing 222 Hydrostatic vertical steriliser 222 Horizontal steriliser 222 UHT treatment 223 The UHT processes 223 Development of UHT 223 UHT plants 224 Various UHT systems 224 General UHT operating phases 224 Pre-sterilisation 224 Production 225 Aseptic intermediate cleaning 225 CIP 225 Direct UHT plant based on steam injection and plate heat exchanger 225 Direct UHT plant based on steam injection and tubular heat exchanger 226 Direct UHT plant based on steam infusion 227 Indirect UHT plant based on plate heat exchangers 227 Split heating 228 Indirect UHT plant based on tubular heat exchangers 228 Indirect UHT plant based on scraped surface heat exchangers 229 Aseptic tank 230 Aseptic packaging 231 UHT pilot plants 231

Cultures and starter manufacture [233]
Stages of propagation 235 Process technology 236 Stages in the process 236 Heat treatment of the medium 237 Cooling to inoculation temperature 237 Inoculation 237 Incubation 237 Cooling the culture 238 Preservation of starters 239 Manufacture of cultures under aseptic conditions 239 Bulk starter tanks 240

Cultured milk products [241]
A legend 242 General requirements for cultured milk production 242 Yoghurt 243 Flavoured yoghurt 243 Factors affecting the quality of yoghurt 244 Choice of milk 244 Milk standardisation 244 Fat 244 Dry matter (DM) content 244 Milk additives 245 Sugar or sweetener 245 Stabilisers 245 Deaeration 245 Homogenisation 246 Heat treatment 246 Choice of culture 246 Culture preparation 246 Plant design 247 Production lines 247 Evaporation 247 Homogenisation 248 Pasteurisation 248 Cooling the milk 248 Design of the yoghurt plant 249 Stirred yoghurt 249 Cooling the coagulum 250 Flavouring 250 Packing 251 Plant design 251 Set yoghurt 251 Flavouring/Packaging 251 An alternative production system 252 Flavouring/Packing 252 Incubation and cooling 253 Incubation 253 Cooling 253 Drinking yoghurt 254 Long-life yoghurt 254 Production under aseptic conditions 254 “Clean Room” production conditions 255 Heat treatment of yoghurt 255 Frozen yoghurt 255 Production of yoghurt mix 256 Hard-frozen yoghurt 257 Distribution 257 Concentrated yoghurt 257 Kefir 257 Raw materials 258 Production of starter culture 258 Production of kefir 258 Fat standardisation 259 Homogenisation 259 Heat treatment 259 Inoculation 259 Incubation 259 The acidulation stage 259 The ripening stage 259 Cooling 259 Alternative kefir production 259 Cultured cream 260 Production 260 Homogenisation 260 Heat treatment 260 Inoculation and packing 260 Buttermilk 261 Fermented buttermilk 261 Recent developments in cultured milk products 261

Butter and dairy spreads
Butter and dairy spreads 263 Definitions 264 Butter 265 Sweet and cultured (sour) cream butter 266 Buttermaking 266 The raw material 268 Pasteurisation 268 Vacuum deaeration 269 Bacterial souring 269 Culture preparation 269 Souring of the cream 270 Temperature treatment 270 Butterfat crystallisation 270 Treatment of hard fat 271 Treatment of medium-hard fat 272 Treatment of very soft fat 272 Churning 272 Batch production 272 Butter formation 272 Churning recovery 273 Working 273 Vacuum working 273 Continuous production 273 The manufacturing process 273 New trends and possibilities for yellow fat products 275 Bregott 275 Lätt & Lagom 275 The TetraBlend process 275 The process line 276 Packaging 277 Cold storage 277 Experimental buttermaking methods 277

Anhydrous Milk Fat (AMF) (Butteroil) [279]
AMF characteristics 280 Production of AMF 281 Principles of production 281 Manufacture of AMF from cream 281 Manufacture of AMF from butter 282 AMF refining 283 Polishing 284 Neutralisation 284 Fractionation 284 Decholesterolisation 285 Packaging 285

Cheese [287]
Tradition and basic knowledge 287 Terminology for classification of cheese 288 Definitions 288 Classification of cheese 288 Cheese production – general procedures for hard and semi-hard cheese 289 Milk treatment prior to cheesemaking 290 Milk collection 291 Heat treatment and mechanical reduction of bacteria 291 Thermisation 291 Pasteurisation 292 Mechanical reduction of bacteria 293 Bactofugation 293 Process alternatives 293 Microfiltration 295 Standardisation 296 Additives in cheesemilk 296 Starter 296 Disturbances in cultures 297 Calcium chloride (CaCl2) 297 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 297 Saltpetre (NaNO3 or KNO3) 298 Colouring agents 298 Rennet 298 Substitutes for animal rennet 299 Other enzymatic systems 299 Cheesemaking modes 299 Curd production 299 Milk treatment 299 Starter addition 300 Additives and renneting 300 Cutting the coagulum 301 Pre-stirring 301 Pre-drainage of whey 302 Heating/cooking/scalding 302 Final stirring 303 Final removal of whey and principles of curd handling 303 Cheese with granular texture 303 Round-eyed cheese 303 Pre-pressing vats 304 Continuous pre-pressing system 304 Closed texture cheese 305 Mechanised cheddaring machine 306 Final treatment of curd 307 Pressing 307 Trolley table pressing 307 Autofeed tunnel press 307 Conveyor press 308 The Block Former system 308 Cooking and stretching of Pasta Filata types of cheese 308 Moulding 309 Salting 309 Salting modes 309 Dry salting 309 Brine salting 310 Shallow or surface brining 310 Deep brining 311 Rack brining system 311 Some notes about the preparation of brine 312 Salt penetration in cheese 312 Brine treatment 313 Ripening and storage of cheese 314 Ripening (curing) 314 The lactose decomposition 314 The protein decomposition 314 Storage 315 Storage conditions 315 Methods of air conditioning 316 Storage layout and space requirements 316 Processing lines for hard and semi-hard cheese 317 Hard types of cheese 317 Processing line for Emmenthal cheese 317 Processing line for Cheddar cheese 318 Semi-hard types of cheese 318 Processing line for Gouda cheese 318 Processing line for Tilsiter cheese 319 Processing line for Mozzarella cheese 320 Semi-hard, semi-soft and soft types of cheese 321 Semi-hard and semi-soft cheese 321 Blue veined cheese 321 Semi-soft/soft cheese 323 Camembert cheese 323 Soft cheese 323 Cottage cheese 323 Quarg 325 Ultrafiltration (UF) in cheese manufacture 326 Cheesemaking using UF and curdmaking machine 327 New trends 328 Processed cheese 328 Manufacture 328

Whey processing [331]
Different whey processes 333 Casein fines recovery and fat separation 333 Cooling and pasteurisation 334 Concentration of total solids 334 Concentration 334 Drying 334 Fractionation of total solids 335 Protein recovery 335 Protein recovery by UF 335 Defattening of whey protein concentrate (WPC) 337 Recovery of denatured whey protein 338 Chromatographic isolation of lactoperoxidase and lactoferrin 339 Lactose recovery 339 Crystallisation 340 Lactose separation 340 Drying 340 Refining of lactose 341 Demineralisation (Desalination) 341 Principles of demineralisation 341 Partial demineralisation by NF 341 High degree demineralisation 342 Electrodialysis 342 Operating principle 343 Power supply and automation 344 Limiting factors in electrodialysis 344 lon exchange 344 lon exchange resin characteristics 346 Ion exchange processes for demineralisation 346 Conventional ion exchange for demineralisation 347 Process limitations 348 An alternative ion exchange process 348 Process limitations and costs 349 Lactose conversion 350 Lactose hydrolysis 350 Enzymatic hydrolysis 350 Acid hydrolysis 351 Chemical reaction 351 Lactosyl urea 351 Ammonium lactate 351

Condensed milk [353]
Outline of condensed milk 354 Raw material for condensed milk 354 Bacteriological quality of the raw material 355 Thermal stability of the raw material 355 Pretreatment 355 Standardisation 355 Heat treatment 355 Unsweetened condensed milk 355 Evaporation 355 Homogenisation 356 Cooling and sample sterilisation 356 Canning 356 Sterilisation 356 UHT treatment 357 Storage and inspection 357 Sweetened condensed milk (SCM) 357 Evaporation 358 Cooling and crystallisation 358 Packing and inspection 359

Milk powder [361]
Drying 362 Various uses of milk powder 362 Skimmilk powder 363 Whole milk powder 363 Instant-milk powder 364 Bulk density 364 Definition 364 Factors influencing bulk density 364 Powder material density 364 Occluded air content 364 Interstitial air 365 Production of milk powder 365 Raw material 365 General pre-treatment of the milk 365 Roller or drum drying 366 Spray drying 366 Basic drying installations 366 Single-stage drying 366 Two-stage drying 367 Three-stage drying 367 Operating principle of spray drying 367 Single-stage drying 367 Milk atomising 368 Two-stage drying 368 Three-stage drying 369 Production of instant powder 371 Fluid-bed drying 371 Heat recovery 372 Packing milk powder 372 Changes in milk powder during storage 373 Dissolving milk powder 373

Recombined milk products [375]
Definitions 376 Raw material handling 376 Milk powder 376 Fats and oils 377 Water 378 Additives 378 Dissolving of milk powder 378 Wettability 378 Ability to sink 378 Dispersability 378 Solubility 379 Recombination temperature and hydration time 379 Fat addition and emulsification 379 Air content 379 Powder handling 380 Design of recombination plants 380 Deaeration 380 Heat treatment 380 Plant with fat supply to mixing tanks 381 Small-scale production 381 Large-scale production 381 Plant with in-line fat mixing 382 Large-scale production 382 Milk handling 383 Packing 383 Storage 383 Distribution 384

Ice cream [385]
Categories of ice cream 386 The ice cream process 386 Reception and storage of raw materials 386 Formulation 387 Ingredients 388 Fat 388 Milk solids-non-fat (MSNF) 388 Sugar 388 Emulsifiers 389 Stabilisers 389 Flavouring 389 Colouring 389 Weighing, measuring and mixing 389 Homogenisation and pasteurisation 390 Ageing 390 Continuous freezing 390 Packing, extrusion and moulding 390 Packing in cups, cones and containers 390 Extrusion of sticks and stickless products 391 Moulding of bars 391 Hardening and cold storage 392 Wrapping and packaging 392 Examples of production plants 392

Casein [395]
Types of casein 396 Influence of raw material 396 Rennet casein 396 Batch washing 396 Continuous washing 397 Acid casein 397 Biological acidification – lactic acid casein 397 Mineral acidification – acid casein 398 Co-precipitate 398 Caseinate 399 Sodium caseinate 399 Calcium caseinate 399 Other caseinates 400 Extruded sodium caseinate 400 Uses of caseins and caseinates 400 Rennet casein 400 Acid casein 401 Sodium caseinate 401 Calcium caseinate 402 Calcium co-precipitate 402

Cleaning of dairy equipment [403]
Aspects of cleaning 403 Trade obligations 404 Moral obligation 404 Legal obligation 404 Cleaning objectives 404 Dirt 404 Heated surfaces 404 Cold surfaces 405 Cleaning procedures 405 Recovery of product residues 405 Prerinsing with water 406 Cleaning with detergent 406 Detergent concentration 406 Detergent temperature 406 Mechanical cleaning effect 407 Duration of cleaning 407 Rinsing with clean water 407 Disinfection 407 Cleaning-in-place systems 408 CIP circuits 408 Compatible materials and system design 408 CIP programs 409 Design of CIP systems 409 Centralised CIP 410 Decentralised CIP 411 Verifying the cleaning effect 412

Dairy effluents [415]
Organic pollutants 416 Biological oxygen demand (BOD) 416 Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 416 Calcining loss 416 Total organic carbon (TOC) 416 Inorganic pollutants 417 Dairy waste water 417 Cooling water 417 Sanitary waste water 417 Industrial waste water 417 pH of dairy effluent 418 Reducing the quantity of pollutants in waste water 418 General milk treatment 418 Cheese production area 419 Butter production area 419 Milk powder production area 419 Milk packaging area 419 Outlet control 419 Sewage treatment, a general survey 420 Mechanical treatment 421 Chemical treatment 421 Biological treatment 422 Sludge treatment 422