User:Harandell/sandbox

Pant-hoot (call)
The pant-hoot (call) is a well-studied, structurally complex and long-distance vocalization of chimpanzees. The call is generally divided into four distinct, successive phases: introduction, build-up, climax and let-down. This introductory phase begins with soft, breathy, low-frequency 'hoo's' that transition into the build-up phase; a series of increasingly rapid, low-frequency in-and-out pants. Following the build-up phase, the call quickly builds into the climax, consisting of loud, high-frequency screams that eventually slow into the let-down phase, similar in structure to the build-up, but with decreasing amplitude and pace until the call is complete.

Both male and female chimpanzees produce these unique vocalizations, with high-ranking adult males predominantly and more frequently emitting the pant-hoot. The pant-hoot is most often produced jointly with other males, in a behaviour known as chorusing, as opposed to producing the calls individually.

These loud, long-distance vocalizations are produced for numerous purposes in a variety of different circumstances and situations. A complementary behaviour to the pant-hoot is chorusing which can be used to aid in the formation of social groups or parties amongst male chimpanzees, and used to display the dominance and strength of their party to conspecifics. Pant-hoot calls are also produced upon the arrival of fruit trees  to indicate the location of abundant resources and when joining and greeting other members of their social group. Calls are produced to indicate the spacial location of the individuals in a party, facilitating the maintenance and unity of the social group by providing a means of communication between members while travelling, often listening to the distant calls made by other chimpanzees and responding to them. Also, pant-hoots are used to identify and distinguish between members of a social group, as each individual upholds some variation in their specific calls. Finally, the level of pant-hooting in chimps vary based upon their individual dominance rank within a party. There are also levels of variation observed within the structure and expression of pant-hoot calls within this range of circumstances, which serve to separate populations, social parties and individuals from one another, allowing coherence between the members in all situations, and the establishment of individual identities among each chimp.

Social bonding (affiliation)
Pant-hoot chorusing in chimpanzees is a facilitative method of social bonding between males in a population and can be indicative of the level of affiliation between members in a party. A social affiliation between male chimpanzees can be recognized by observable behaviours such as reciprocal grooming, non-vocal displays and the support of a member during conflicts with conspecifics. The display of these behaviours between two male chimpanzees or an entire group suggest that these individuals are highly affiliated with strong social bonds. The production of pant-hoots between members are also reflective upon this observation, in which individuals are more likely to engage in chorusing behaviours with their long-term affiliative social partners, as opposed to other neutral males in which they are not affiliated. However, male chimpanzees have been found to occasionally chorus with neutral males in situations where their preferred social parter is unavailable, forming short-term social bonds, and essentially displaying the three behaviours indicative of social bonding; grooming, support and non-vocal displays during days when they pant-hoot chorus with these neutral males. This illustrates how joint pant-hoot chorusing can facilitate the formation of social bonding activities between male chimpanzees. The establishment of this bond can be indicated to each member of the party as the joint chorus and response to the initial caller illustrates the commitment and attention that the correspondant has devoted to the caller, and subsequently, the formation of the social bond between them.

The formation of social groups between male chimpanzees can be beneficial in both the short-term and the long-term scenarios. The formation of short-term social bonds between males in absence of their preferred social partner can serve as an alternate mechanism for coalition, providing temporary support and protection while separated from their long-term partners. In the long-term bond situation, members of chimpanzee party will display their pant-hoot chorusing behaviour as an indication of their socially affiliative strength to third-party males, suggesting their support of one another, combined dominance and the overall strength of their territorial defence.

Spacial communication
Following the formation of social bonds and parties within chimpanzee populations, these social affiliations are thought to be maintained by the production of pant-hoot calls upon the spacial separation of the group, serving as a means of communication and contact between members. Each specific member in a social group can be identified by their pant-hoot by other members of their social group and by other populations by variation in the structure and dialectal differences of their call. Therefore, pant-hoot calls can be produced to indicate locational changes of specific members, with calls being produced before and after travelling, to announce their new relative spacial position to other members of their affiliative party. When members remain in close spacial proximity to one another, this pant-hoot calling is reduced, as opposed to situations in which members are temporarily spatially separated and constantly travelling, the pant-hooting calls are employed to assist in the maintenance of their connection, and awareness of the whereabouts of each of their affiliative partners. When individuals are in complete absence and isolation of their social partners, pant-hoot production is significantly reduced, and upon reuniting within certain spacial boundaries, pant-hooting and communication between the partners resume.

Spacial contact between members of a chimpanzee party may be maintained to uphold the fitness benefits brought upon by the social affiliation with other chimpanzees. Social bonds can be identified by the reciprocal grooming and support during intraspecific conflicts, these affiliative behaviours can be announced in the face of third-party males, by the production of pant-hoot choruses, demonstrating their dominance and strength as a group. Dominance rank among male chimpanzees is tied hand-in-hand with mating and reproductive success, therefore, the maintenance of the social group and the affiliation with individuals brings an adaptive benefit in the establishment of higher dominance rankings of affiliative populations and therefore increased reproductive success, and essentially overall fitness. This in turn illustrates the adaptive benefit of spacial communication and contact with allies that sustain the highest potential for contributing associated fitness benefits to the group.

Variation/modification
The modifications and variability observed within the chimpanzee pant-hoot calls can be attributed to differences in the structure and the production of these vocalizations. Structural differences in the pant hoot have been observed with respect to behavioural context, such as in the production of chorusing, habitat composition and genetic differentiation with respect to geographic separation and differences based upon experience and vocal learning. Additionally, the overall production and level of pant-hoot expression displays variation based upon the dominance rank of individuals and the risks imposed by location and human interactions.

Structure
The general structure of chimpanzee pant-hoots (introduction, build-up, climax and let-down) can be variable between populations, including instances of additions/removals of certain phrases, changes in duration of each phrase and the rearrangement of the general sequential pattern of phrases, with these modifications being easily identified by researchers, experts and other human listeners. These structural differences may be attributed to behavioural contexts, genetic differences between members of different populations of chimpanzees occurring in geographically separated populations, and consequently, varying habitat conditions and learning based upon experience (vocal learning).

Chimpanzees have been observed to modify the structure of their pant-hoot based upon the behavioural situations in which they are in. For example, during pant-hoot chorusing behaviour, males will modify the structure of their calls to essentially become more similar to the calls of their affiliative partners, as opposed to the specific call they produce when pant-hooting individually. Males will also modify the structure of their calls to facilitate this chorusing behaviour and social bonding phenomenon. It has been observed that male chimps will prolong the production of the build-up phase to increase the likelihood of another individual joining in and ultimately forming a chorus. Additionally, once the chorus has been formed, the climax phase of the chorus is extended in length to increase the effectiveness of the display and the strength of the bond between the chorusing partners. The modifications to the duration of the build-up and climax phrases of the pant-hoot structure illustrate a mechanism for increasing the probability and efficient formation and maintenance of social parties and chorusing groups of chimpanzees.

Modifications of the structural composition of the pant-hoot between populations may also be explained by genetic differentiation and habitat composition of populations based upon geographical separation. The greater distance there is between populations, there is a reduced possibility of migration and consequently gene flow between populations. Migration in turn causes the genetic makeup of populations to homogenize and converge, increasing similarity between the two groups. With increased geographic separation, and therefore increased distance, and reduced gene flow, populations will become genetically divergent from one another and increasingly differentiated, supporting the observation of differences in the duration, and structure of pant-hoot phrases amongst geographically separated populations. In addition to genetic differentiation between geographically isolated populations, habitat conditions increasingly differ with increasing geographic separation. In turn, structural differences in the pant-hoot are observed based upon habitat differentiation within populations. Pant-hoot calls are used as a form of long-distance communication between members of chimp parties, therefore, sound attenuation is an important consideration in the production of these calls. Individuals living in forest ecosystems must modify the structure of their calls to reduce the effects of degradation and attenuation on the transmission of their call due to the high number trees obstructing the pathway of the calls. This increases the possibility of refraction and scattering of the sound waves, therefore increasing the rate of attenuation and effectiveness of the calls. Producing slower, low frequency calls within a forest habitat will slow the rate of attenuation and reduce the risk of degradation of the pant-hoot, in comparison to individuals living in open areas and fields, where the need for this structural adaption is reduced.

Finally, the variable structure of chimpanzee pant-hoots amongst populations may be attributable to experience, based upon the theory of vocal learning. Chimpanzees posses individual characteristics of their pant-hoots as mechanism for recognition by other member of their social groups, however, when engaging in chorusing with other males, each participant displays call convergence, in which the calls of each individual resemble the other, in the formation of a group-specific call. The learning of these group-specific calls provide a method for rapid identification of members within the same affiliative group, allowing for an increased benefit when engaging in intraspecies conflicts, allowing members to distinguish their allies from their opponents. The production of group-specific calls demonstrate the variability in the the structure of chimpanzee pant-hoots as these behaviours and specific calls are a learned mechanism to distinguish neighbouring populations from one another, as each population maintains modifications to their pant-hoots in relation to the next, illustrating the structural diversity of the pant-hoot with respect to vocal learning.

Production
Chimpanzee tend to alter the production and duration of pant-hoot calls based upon their dominance rank with respect to other individuals and the locational risk and human influences upon the production of these loud, long-distance vocalizations.

High-ranking, dominant males produce longer and more frequent pant-hoots than individuals of a lower social status. This may be attributed to sexual selection for high levels of call production, as this indicates the high quality and dominance of the calling individual to conspecifics and prospective mates. The production of pant-hoot calls are related to the formation of a high social status as calling facilitates the formation of strong social bonds and affiliations between members, equivalently increasing the displayed coalition, strength and essentially dominance of each individual in the socially affiliated group. Increasing the display of strength and dominance increases the attraction of mates, and ultimately fitness, resulting in the selection for these dominant males with increased production of pant-hoots than lower-ranking males.

Chimps will also alter the production of calls based upon the situational circumstances of their location. In areas that chimps are at a high risk of attack by rival individuals, such as crossing the territorial boundaries of conspecifics where acts of aggression and life-threatening battles are common, there is a fluidity in the production of loud vocalizations and pant-hooting within these individuals to reduce the potential for conflict. Chimps are observed to either reduce the production of these loud, long-distance pant-hoots when approaching the periphery in an attempt to avoid detection and attacks by hostile conspecifics, or they will display increased levels of pant-hooting in an attempt to display dominance and the strength of the territorial defence of their party, to induce the retreat of rival individuals. Subsequently, some chimpanzees inhabiting areas subject to high hunting pressures by humans will modify the production of pant-hoots in an attempt to remain undetected. In areas where humans are prevalent and the risks associated with hunting are high, chimps will reduce the production of loud, pant-hoots to make it difficult to be located by hunters. However, some individuals will still produce territorial hooting in the face of rival populations, regardless of the threats imposed by humans. Individuals also modify call production temporally, by increasing pant-hooting behaviours in the early morning and late night hours when human activity slows and the risk of being hunted is reduced. When located in areas where human impacts are reduced and hunting is less prevalent, chimpanzees will produce loud vocalizations and pant-hoots as what is considered to be normally expected.

END OF DRAFT

Article Evaluation
For this week's wikipedia milestone, I chose to read and evaluate the wikipedia article, Alpha roll. This particular article is a part of the project, WikiProject Dogs, and has been rated as Start-Class on the projects quality scale and Low-Importance on the projects importance scale. These ratings are a good indication that the article is likely to be unreliable, underdeveloped, and in need of the addition of quality information and improvements.The article is also flagged with a banner, highlighting that the article has multiple issues, and containing a suggestion for editors to improve it. The article itself is also quite unappealing to myself as a reader, there are no images attached that catch the attention of potential readers, making the article appear quite boring. The lead paragraph is also quite short and lacks a proper definition and description of the topic to be discussed. The overall content of the article is not unified, the headings do not correspond well with the information contained in the corresponding paragraphs. Not all of the information given in the article effectively explains what the alpha roll is, the article takes a turn in which it just discusses why the alpha roll shouldn't be used as a dog training technique, and appears to be biased against it, instead of aiming to educate about the alpha roll in a neutral, unbiased way. For example, there were several claims made by the writer that does not indicate a neutral viewpoint such as, "Although neither of these positions speaks directly to the issue of whether the alpha roll is an effective correction tool, it does call into question the behavioral validity of the technique.", "using the technique can be harmful to both the handler and the dog", "They recommend the alpha roll should never be used by inexperienced trainers, and never to correct undesired behavior caused by the dog's failure to understand a command", and, "it may have positive effect, but there is disagreement about its long-term effectiveness and safety", demonstrating the negative viewpoint of the alpha role predominately in the article. Also, there were several claims made, un-cited, that appear as assumptions or opinions made by the writer, some of which include, "The alpha roll is a controversial dog training technique", and "Although the 1978 book is widely regarded as a classic in dog training literature and highly recommended for people trying to better understand their dog, the alpha roll is now highly controversial among animal behaviorists because the theory of canine dominance has since been questioned." This specific claim also promotes the book that is being discussed, demonstrating the contributions of the writers personal opinions and assumptions. There are also numerous claims made within the article by the author that need appropriate citations, for example, "these dominance behaviors are shown significantly more often by the breeding pair of the pack, indicating they do not serve as a behavioral correction or punishment, nor as a reinforcement of the dominance of the breeding pair" this statement is un-cited within the article, not indicating where this fact arose from. There is also other facts that have been marked by other editors, indicating the need for citations. The sources for the information range in date from 1978-2011, and could use some more up-to-date information. Some of the links work and some do not, some articles are not available for use anymore (or could not be found). The sources are biased and support the biased, negative viewpoint of the alpha roll assumed by the writer in the article, one such source is, ""New study finds popular "Alpha Dog" training techniques can cause more harm than good". The talk page of the article has many discussions concerning the biased viewpoint of the article and the validity and biased nature of some of the references, others indicate their viewpoints on how the alpha roll could be effective and believe that both viewpoints of the alpha roll should be presented in the article, as it appears to be a controversial topic to many people involved in the talk page. Overall, I think that the article is in much need of improvement, such as first effectively explaining what the alpha roll is, with images or links to other reliable sources of information, presenting a neutral viewpoint on the use of the alpha roll as a dog training technique, or presenting both views on the topic, and finding reliable, unbiased sources of information of which are to be properly cited and referenced within the article.

Week 4
Added citation to Emotion in animals.

Week 5
I am interested in creating a new article, Human-directed gazing behaviour. This behaviour most commonly occurs in dogs when they are faced with an "impossible" or "unsolvable" task. The dogs tend to gaze at their owners when they are unable to solve the problem and obtain a reward such as a food item or treat.

Some possible references include:

TA: This sounds like a good potential topic, just make sure you can find enough primary literature on the subject to support a significant contribution.

Week 6
I have decided to change my topic from "Human-directed gazing behaviour in dogs" to Pant-hoot (call). There is already a well developed article about dog behaviour and dog communication so I think it will be difficult to add a significant contribution regarding gazing.

However, for this weeks assignment. I have decided upon expanding the pre-existing article on the Pant-hoot call in chimpanzees. My plans to improve and add to this article include first re-evaluating the pre-existing lead section. I plan to make sure that all information present is reliable, and notable. I will try to find reliable sources for some of the information that is already given, and try to arrange it in a way that is structured and coherent. My aim is to edit and develop the lead section in such a way that it effectively explains the pant hoot, by rearranging, adding to, and supporting claims made by the original author, while still evaluating which statements are accurate and reliable, without negatively impacting and compromising the contributions of the previous editor.

Some information that I would like to add to the article include: Also, I am leaning towards the idea of instead of making a sub heading for Dominance and Human impacts, I could incorporate those into the Variation/ modification Heading. Therefore, I would have 4 sub-headings within the variation/modification heading, including: Geographic variation, Vocal learning, Dominance, and Human impacts.
 * 1) In the lead section: A description of the pant-hoot call (how it sounds, possibly how it is produced)
 * 2) In the lead section: The 4 stages of the pant hoot call (Intro, buildup, climax, let down)
 * 3) Heading: Social Bonding ( Affiliation) - How chimpanzees use the pant hoot to develop relationships and social connections with others.
 * 4) Heading: Spacial communications: How chimpanzees use the pant hoot to communicate with other members of their social groups (long-distance calling).
 * 5) Heading: Variation in the pant hoot (or modifications of the pant hoot): Including differences based upon geographic separation and differences with respect to the theory of vocal learning ( chimps modify pant hoot to be different from their neighbours).
 * 6) Heading: Dominance Rank: How calls vary based upon the position of dominance between male chimpanzees ( could possibly add this point to the Variation heading).
 * 7) Heading: Human impacts on the pant hoot: chimpanzees have the ability to modify their behaviour in threatening situations (reduced pant hooting in areas with high levels of human activity.

Some references include: