User:Hjd165/sandbox

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Article Evaluation
This is an evaluation of Animal Language.

Content

The article does give lots of appropriate examples of possible animal language. However, the only other portions of the article that exists are the section that explains what human language is and the section that attempts to distinguish animal language from animal communication. The content of the article could be laid out in a more logical way. For example, the section that attempts to distinguish animal language from animal communication addresses multiple areas, such as: history, controversy, evolution and other examples of animal language. This can be confusing for readers. I believe one section that is missing from the article, but seems to be essential, is the reasons why animal language is an area of research in the first place. It is mentioned a couple of times throughout the article that researchers are interested in the connections between modern human language and the historical influence of animal language, but it should be discussed more within the article.

Tone

The article seems to mostly discuss research and studies that support the idea that animal language exists and is unique to human language. Although the article does mention the controversies surrounding animal language, almost all of the examples of research are of studies that showed some form of animal language, except one. Some more examples of current research that represent the opposing side should be included because it seems the idea of animal language is still contested.

Source

After clicking on a few of the sources, it seems they are slightly weak. Two of the sources I randomly clicked on were pages of websites. Although they were reputable websites (National Geographic Kids and Nature), they were more so written as news articles. The National Geographic article was reporting on a study that supposedly found that dolphin mothers are able to distinguish their offspring and communicate with them through a telephone. However, it does not seem that this posting was held to the same standard as scholarly articles that are peer reviewed. Also, a large portion of the article requires citations. The fact that so many citations are missing makes the reader question whether the information is relevant and valid.

Talk

This article is rated as a "Start" article in both WikiProject Animals and WikiProject Languages. It seems that a large topic of conversation among the Wikipedians is the distinction between animal communication and animal language. There is a disagreement on whether the two topics should be merged onto the same Wikipedia page or not. Another discussion includes whether the article is too biased towards pro-animal language opinions. These are both conversations that are important to the improvement of the article.

Bibliography & Notes
Baker, B. J. & Richardson, J. M. L. (2006). The effect of artificial light on male breeding-season behaviour in green frogs, Rana clamitans melanota. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 84, 1528-1532. doi:10.1139/Z06-142

Barber, J. B., Crooks, K. R., & Fristrup, K. M. (2009).Barber, J. B., Crooks, K. R., & Fristrup, K. M. (2009). The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25, 180-189. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.08.002

Bedrosian, T. A., Aubrecht, T. G., Kaugars, K. E., Weil, A. M., & Nelson, R. J. (2013). Artificial light at night alters delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction in response to acute stress in Siberian hamsters. Brain, Behaviour, and Immunity, 34, 39-42. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2013.05.009

Botha, A. M., Jones, T. M., & Hopkins, G. R. (2017). Effects of lifetime exposure to artificial light at night on cricket (Teleogryllus commodus) courtship and mating behaviour. Animal Behaviour, 129, 181-188. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.05.020

Bruintjes, R., & Radford, A. N. (2013). Context-dependent impacts of anthropogenic noise on individual and social behaviour in a cooperatively breeding fish. Animal Behaviour, 85, 1343-1349. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.03.025

Curry, C. M., Des Brisay, P. G., Rosa, P., & Koper, N. (2018). Noise source and individual physiology mediate effectiveness of bird songs adjusted to anthropogenic noise. Scientific Reports, 8. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22253-5.

Francis, C. D., Ortega, C. P., & Cruz, A. (2009). Noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions. Current Biology, 19, 1415-1419. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.052

Gerrish, G. A., Morin, J. G., Rivers, T. J. & Patrawala, Z. (2009). Darkness as an ecological resource: The role of light in partitioning the nocturnal niche. Oecologia, 160, 525-536. doi:10.1007/s00442-009- 1327-8

Patricelli, G. L., & Blickley, J. L. (2006). Avian communication in urban noise: causes and consequences of vocal adjustment. The Auk, 123, 639-649.

Raap, T., Sun, J., Pinxten, R., & Eens, M. (2017). Disruptive effects of light pollution on sleep in free-living birds: Season and/ or light intensity-dependent. Behavioural Processes, 144, 13-19. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2017.08.011

Rodriguez, A., Chiaradia, A., Wasiak, P., Renwick, L., & Dann, P. (2016). Waddling on the dark side: Ambient light affects attendance behavior of little penguins. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 31, 194-204. doi:10.1177/0748730415626010

Wale, M. A., Simpson, S. D., & Radford, A. N. (2013). Noise negatively affects foraging and antipredator behaviour in shore crabs. Animal Behaviour, 86, 111-118. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.05.001

Wisniewska, D. M., Johnson, M., Teilmann, J., Siebert, U., Galatius, A., Dietz, R., & Madsen, P. T. (2018). High rates of vessel noise disrupt foraging in wild harbour porpoises (Phocoena phocoena). Proceedings Royal Society B, 285. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2314

Paragraph Ideas
Noise Pollution:

1) Terrestrial animal consequences


 * Population affects
 * Animal communication

2) Effects on ocean animals


 * Antipredator behaviour can be affected: fish, shore crabs
 * Foraging behaviour can be affected: porpoises, shore crabs

Light Pollution:

1) Reproductive behaviour

2) Foraging behaviour

3) Antipredator behaviour

Rough Draft
Pollutants are not always chemicals. They can be other unnatural stimuli introduced to the environment by humans, such as noise and light pollution. Anthropogenic noise and light can result in altered antipredator behaviour, reproductive behaviour, communication, foraging behaviour, population distribution, male-male competition and more. However, the mechanisms behind these altered behaviours is relatively unknown within the literature.

Birds
Noise pollution is widespread, which is mostly a result of transportation networks. Although there are many effects of noise pollution, two specific consequences are adjustments in population distribution and modified animal communication. Birds provide a clear example of both of these consequences. Altered population distributions can affect inter-species interactions. For example, the diversity of birds in the woodlands of New Mexico was significantly reduced in areas with unnatural noise levels. This change in diversity resulted in less nest predation, which was explained by the decreased presence of the dominant predator - the scrub-jay. This effect has also been observed in owls. A negative correlation was found between the noise intensity of an area and the probability that a long-eared owl will reside in that region. Suggested explanations for this outcome are that hunting efficiency was diminished and communication was less effective.

Noise pollution also affects conspecific communication. High noise levels may require animals to adjust their vocalizations in order for communication to remain effective. Bird songs are a well-studied component of animal communication. The use of adjusted songs was observed in Savannah sparrows residing in noisy environments. Adjusted songs were so distinct that their use in the control environment did not result in responses (i.e. aggressive territorial behaviour) typically observed when non-adjusted songs were vocalized. Failure to recognize conspecific vocalizations can also be detrimental to male-male competition. Male urban white-crowned sparrows approached stimulus songs of intruders more closely, regardless of song type, when in the presence of noise pollution. A higher frequency of harmful fights is a suggested consequence of this behaviour because of the relatively small distance between the intruding and defending males.

Marine Animals
Noise pollution can also affect marine animals. There are many sources of noise in the world's oceans, such as the sounds produced by commercial shipping, sonars and acoustic deterrents. Unnatural noise levels can negatively affect reproductive behaviour, such as courtship behaviours. For example, painted goby males did not take part in visual courtship behaviour when in a noisy environment. Female painted gobies in this experiment were also less likely to spawn in a noisy environment. Noise pollution can also affect foraging behaviour in marine animals, which results in less effective strategies. Porpoises have been found to make fewer prey capture attempts, dive deeper, and cut their foraging behaviour short when a vessel passes by, which results in a higher energy expenditure. Shore crabs were also observed interrupting their foraging behaviour when in the presence of ship noise. Antipredator behaviour in marine animals has also been known to change when noise levels are high. Shore crabs took longer to return to their shelters when in the presence of ship noise. Neolamprologus pulcher (a cichlid fish) females defended their nest less against predators when boat noise was present.

Recommendations for Marine Animals
Specific mitigation strategies and recommendations have been presented by the Marine Mammal Commission (2007). They offer multiple ways to alleviate noise pollution in the ocean. Some strategies include removing the source of noise, employing sound attenuation devices, limiting the use of the sound source and monitoring operational requirements. They recommend improving research programs, creating consistent regulation standards that are better enforced and improving mitigation strategies.

Light Pollution
Light pollution affects multiple aspects of animal behaviour, such as reproductive behaviour, foraging behaviour and antipredator behaviour. Altered reproductive behaviour has been observed in multiple taxa. Female crickets were less captious of males when they were raised in bright artificial light. Male crickets that were raised under continuous artificial light were discriminated against more than male crickets raised in darkness or moonlight. Female fireflies also altered their reproductive behaviour by failing to flash when placed under artificial light and males never flashed in response to these females. However, it is not only insects that are affected by light pollution. Male green frogs made less calls and moved more often when in the presence of artificial light. According to Baker and Richardson (2006), these behavioural changes negatively affect breeding success.

Another consequence of light pollution is the disruption of foraging behaviour in wildlife, such as where and when they forage or hunt. Beach mice used foraging patches near sodium vapor lights or yellow bug lights less often than non-lit patches and they also harvested fewer seeds from these lit patches. This study also hypothesizes that artificial light may alter the movement of mice because of predation risks. Bats are another animal that are greatly affected by light pollution. The presence of artificial lights is associated with a delayed emergence of bats from their dwellings and less time spent emerged. This alteration in foraging behaviour causes bats to miss the most optimal hunting time for insects. According to this study, as little as one hour of artificial light exposure after dusk disrupts the bats foraging behaviour, as well as growth rates.

Light pollution can also alter antipredator behaviour in wildlife. When moths come within a close proximity of a hunting bat, they make a powerdive towards the ground (Roeder & Treat, 1961). If moths are in the presence of artificial light, they are less likely to make this powerdive manoeuver, which results in a reduced ability to evade bat predation. A suggested explanation for this behaviour, according to this study, is that moths turn their ultrasound detection off in daylight (or simulated daylight). Predator-prey interactions are also altered by noise pollution. An example of this is in loggerhead turtles and ghost crabs. Ghost crabs are attracted to artificial lights and begin to exhibit more aggressive predatory behaviour in the presence of the light. This study hypothesizes that loggerhead hatchling predation would also increase as a result of this modified predatory behaviour and the predator-prey relationship would, therefore, be altered.

Peer review from user Gdvol
Overall you have a great article! It flows really nicely and the transitions between paragraphs are well done. The information is relevant to your page and you don't have a biased tone on any of your paragraphs. The information seems to be cited correctly and you don't seem to be plagiarizing any information (but I never truly checked all your sources to see if you copied anything haha) There were a few grammatical errors that I found and listed below, other than these few changes you've created a great addition for the pollutant induced abnormal behaviour page. My only other piece of advice is to make a "true" references section at the end of your draft and cite everything properly through the wiki cite button. Just replace your current citations with the cite button and it'll automatically add your references at the bottom in the reference section. Good luck with the rest of the course!

"Although there are many affects" should be effects. You also do not need the colon before "adjustments in population distribution and modified animal communication" unless you add a third item to make it a list.

"Porpoises have been found to make fewer prey capture attempts, dive deeper, and cut their foraging behaviour short when a vessel passes by (Wisniewska, Johnson, Teilmann, Siebert, Galatius, Dietz, & Madsen, 2018). This results in a higher energy expenditure (Wisniewska, et. al., 2018)", maybe combine these and say "porpoises have been found... a vessel passes by which results in a higher energy expenditure." and add both citations after the one sentence. I also corrected the spelling of deterrants to deterrents.

In one sentence you wrote shore carbs, I changed that to shore crabs as I'm sure that's what you meant.

"Shore crabs took longer to return to their shelters when in the presence of ship noise and (Wale et al., 2013)." I'm not sure if there is supposed to be anything after the and or if that was a mistake in typing, did you mean to connect it with the sentence about Neolamprologus pulcher? Also, since that is the species name it should be italicized.

"Some strategies include removing the source of noise, employ sound attenuation devices, limiting the use of the source and monitoring operational requirements."

I also don't think that there needs to be brackets around "that are better enforced", the sentence flows well without them

In light pollution you say according to this study, which study are you referring to? Maybe say "according to the study conducted by so and so, these behavioural changes negatively affect breeding success" Possibly change "another consequence of light pollution is disruptions in foraging behaviour in wildlife" to "another consequence of light pollution is the disruption of foraging behaviour in wildlife" the change would let the sentence flow a little better. I also added commas around therefore in the last sentence. This change is completely optional (in my opinion), technically "maneuver" is the American spelling and "manoeuver" is the British/ "preferred" spelling of the rest of the English speaking world. I would check in with the prof to see if this is going to negatively affect your mark because I know he would like Canadian spelling.