User:HonchoMichael123/Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire

Early Ottoman Empire
Jews in the Ottoman Empire had a higher quality of life and freedom than Jews in any other part of the world. The Ottoman Empire accepted Jewish refugees from France, Spain, and many other places. Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II established the Hakham Bashi, as the Rabbi of a particular region, with the Hakham Bashi of Constantinople being the most powerful.

In 1492, Sultan Bayezeid II ordered governors of Ottoman provinces to accept Jewish immigration and to do so cordially. This order was in response to the Alhambra Decree, that ordered for the expulsion of Jews from the Iberian Peninsula. This resulted in a mass exodus of Jews, and due to the high level of freedom enjoyed by Ottoman Jews, many looked to immigrate to Ottoman territory. In 1492 alone, roughly 60,000 Jews arrived in the Ottoman empire.

In 1516, Ottoman Turks invaded and took control of Palestine. They controlled this land until the end of World War I, over 400 years later. Palestine contained the majority of religiously significant and the biblical homeland of the Jews. The land has a similar religious significance to both Islam and Christianity as well. As the Ottoman Empire grew, there had been Jewish communities existing in much of their empire.

Due to the isolated structure of Ottoman Jews, many Jewish communities developed independent of each other, and lacking of any national Jewish identity or common culture. The Jewish community was incredibly diverse due to the Jewish refugees from various countries. The Jewish communities also varied in ethnicities and languages.

Zionist Movement
See Also: Zionist Movement

While the Ottoman Empire became a safe space form Jews, parts of Europe saw increased violence and anti-semitism against Jews. Violent uprisings against Jews took place all over Eastern Europe in the Late 19th century, and civil rights of Jews were extremely limited.

The objective of Zionism grew into the desire to form a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Early in the movement, there were many competing theories regarding the best avenue to achieve Jewish autonomy. The Jewish Territorial Organization represented a popular proposal. The organization supported finding a location, besides Palestine, for Jewish settlement.

Non-territorial autonomy was another popular theory. This was a principle that allowed for groups to self govern themselves without their own state. The Millet system in the Ottoman Empire allowed for this and was used by Orthodox Christians, Armenians, and even Jews. This gave Jews significant legislative and governing powers in the Ottoman Empire. Jews weren't on the same social hierarchy as Muslims in the Ottoman Empire, however, they still enjoyed many protections as they were considered people of the book. This relative autonomy allowed for the formation of many Jewish ideas and practices, increasing the common identity.

As the goal of the Zionist movement grew, many Jews already living in the Ottoman Empire wanted to leverage their relative autonomy into settlement of Palestine. Eventually, the form of Zionism with Palestine as the intended homeland prevailed among the competing theories. Palestine was chosen due to the religious and historical significance of the region. Also, the declining power and financial struggles of the Ottoman Empire was seen as an opportunity. Wealthy and powerful Jews began to put their ideas into action.

Jewish Settling of Palestine
See Also: First Aliyah, Second Aliyah

Theodor Herzl was a late 19th century Jewish thinker and is often credited as the father of the Zionist movement. He formed the World Zionist Organization and called for the First Zionist Congress in 1897. The Jewish - Ottoman Land Company was founded by Herzl. The objective was to acquire land in Palestine, for settlement of Jews, through political channels with the Ottoman Empire. Herzl repeatedly visited Istanbul and engaged in negotiations and meetings with Ottoman officials. In 1901, Herzl was able to have a meeting with Sultan Abdul Hamid and insinuated that he had access to Jewish credit that he could help the Ottoman Empire pay off debt. The company was initially successful, however, it eventually faced opposition from Arabs and the government. These negotiations are incredibly noteworthy considering Herzl was not a government official of any kind; he was just a private citizen.

The Jewish National Fund functioned similarly. It was a fund directed for land purchasing in Palestine. By 1921, around 25,000 acres had been purchased by the Fund in Palestine. Immigration of Jewish people into Palestine in 4 periods or Aliyahs. The first took place between 1881 and 1903, resulting in around 25,000 immigrating. The second took place between 1904 and 1914, resulting in around 35,000 Jews immigrating.

The increased Jewish population and Jewish land in Israel furthered the formation of a Jewish national identity. As the population and property owned by Jews increased in Palestine, support and backing continued to grow. However, so did tensions with other groups, especially Muslim Arabs. Arabs saw the massive Jewish immigration and financial interest in the region as threatening.

Revival of Hebrew
See Also: Revival of Hebrew

Part of this movement included the revival of the Hebrew Language. Hebrew had been spoken traditionally by the Israelites but was estimated to die out at as a spoken language around 200 CE. However, Jewish people continued to use the language for writing and prayer purposes. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, an early member of the Zionist movement, immigrated to Ottoman controlled Palestine in 1881. Ben-Yehuda believed that the modern development of Hebrew wasn't feasible unless it was linked to Zionism. Hebrew quickly was picked up among the Jewish community in Palestine and became a part of the Jewish identity.

Outside of Palestine
Areas in the Ottoman Empire, besides Palestine contained significant Jewish presence. Iraq, Tunisia, Turkey, Greece, and Egypt all had large and formidable Jewish populations. Most of these populations could trace their lineage in these areas back thousands of years to biblical times.

Turkey
Bursa was one of the first cities with a Jewish population conquered by the Ottomans when it was conquered in 1324. The Jewish inhabitants helped the Ottoman army, and they were allowed to return to the city. The Ottomans then granted the Jewish people a certain level of autonomy. This early interaction helped set the standard for Ottoman - Jewish interaction throughout the remainder of Ottoman rule.

Istanbul quickly became a cultural center for Jews in the near east. Jews were able to prosper in many high skill fields, such as the medical field. This elevated social status resulted in even more freedom and ability to solidify Jewish identities.

Iraq
The Siege of Baghdad in 1258 by the Mongols led to the ruin of Baghdad and end of the Abbasid Dynasty. Baghdad was left depopulated and many surviving residents left and moved elsewhere. In 1534, the Ottomans captured Baghdad from the Persians. Baghdad had not seen a strong Jewish population since before the Mongol raid. Many Jewish communities existed in small, isolated areas around Mesopotamia at the time. However, a resurgence in the Jewish population was seen in Baghdad after the Ottoman capture. Jews from Kurdistan, Syria, and Persia began to migrate back into Baghdad. Zvi Yehuda refers to this as the "new Babylonian Diaspora." Jewish population and strength continued to grow in Iraq in the following centuries. In 1900, around 50,000 Jews lived in Baghdad, making up nearly a quarter of its population. Jews played very important roles in Iraqi life and culture. The first Minister of Finance in Iraq, Sassoon Eskell, was even Jewish. Baghdad, and other Iraqi cities were able to function as a Jewish cultural and religious hub throughout Ottoman rule. This freedom and autonomy helped for the development of a strong national Jewish ideology.

Syria
Jewish roots in Syria can date back to Biblical times, and strong Jewish communities have been present in the region since Roman rule. An influx of Jewish settlers came to Syria after the Alhambra Decree in 1492. Aleppo and Damascus were two main centers. Qamishli, a Kurdish town, also became a popular destination. The Aleppo Codex, a manuscript of the Hebrew Bible written in Tiberias, was kept at the Central Synagogue of Aleppo for nearly 600 years of Ottoman Rule. The synagogue was believed by some to have initially been constructed around 1000 BCE by Joab ben Zeruiah, the nephew and General of King David's army. Inscriptions in the Synagogue date back to 834 CE. The heavy migration of Spanish and Italian Jews into Syria resulted in tension between Jewish groups already in the country. This tension was caused by differences in practices and languages. Many of the new residents spoke different languages, especially the Spanish. However, as generations passed, the descendants of Spanish and Italian settlers began to use these languages less and less. Jews continued to rise in status and power in Syria during Ottoman rule. Many Christians held angst against the rapidly increasing Jewish class causing poor relations between the two groups.

Greece
During Ottoman rule, Jewish communities in Greece were able to thrive. Thessaloniki proved to be a formidable Jewish center. In 1603, around 68% of the cities population was Jewish. Many Sephardic Jews came to Thessaloniki after their expulsion from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. The vast Sephardic immigration allowed Thessaloniki to be hub for diverse Jewish ideas. This large presence and advancement of Jews served as a strong national symbol of Jewish prosperity. Thessaloniki was referred to as the "Jerusalem of the Balkans." This Jewish dominance of Thessaloniki continued through the end of Ottoman rule. In around 1900, Jews still made up nearly half of Thessaloniki's 170,000 person population. Jews in Thessaloniki enjoyed a strategic and important location as a port in the Trans-Mediterranean trade network. 19th and 20th century Thessaloniki is commonly referred to as the "Golden Age" and especially for its Jewish inhabitants. The successfulness and prosperity enjoyed by Thessaloniki began to be used as an example of a Jewish state and proof that the concept would succeed.

Synagogues
An important aspect of forming a national Jewish identity, especially based upon religion, were the construction of Synagogues. The Jewish houses of worship allowed Jews to congregate in worship and share their ideas and beliefs. Many synagogues were constructed or rebuilt during Ottoman rule. The Bet Yaakov Synagogue was constructed in Istanbul in 1878. The Ahrida Synagogue is an extremely notable one built in Istanbul in the 1430s. It is located in the Balat area of Istanbul, a formerly vibrant Jewish area. These synagogues were able to function as the cultural center within their own communities.