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The region of Prussia was historically the subject of intermittent Germanisation, resulting in the region’s inclusion in various German states, as well as others. Originating with the arrival of ethnically German groups in the Baltic region, it progressed sporadically with the development of the Teutonic Order and then much later under the Kingdom of Prussia, which continued to impact the region with germanising policies generally aimed at enhancing various forms of control. Ultimately, attempts at Germanisation peaked as the Prussian state transitioned into the German Empire, only to be halted by the outbreak of the First World War.

Native inhabitants
Preceding Germanisation, numerous Prussian tribes inhabited Prussia, remaining heavily pagan in their beliefs. Accordingly, religious as well as economic and political factors inspired eastward German expansion, in what was later regarded as the Drang nach Osten (push to the east). Whilst conquest was predominately violent and entailed large scale resettlement measures, there were cases of nobles utilising the presence of foreigners in order to gain a local advantage, resembling some degree of cooperation. However, the subjugation of native tribes did not ensure their immediate eradication, as natives otherwise retained their lifestyle, resulting in their gradual absorption into larger population sects over the following centuries. It is speculated that this preservation of local inhabitants' rights for so long can be attributed to their importance in fulfilling military functions for their new rulers. Conversely, the worth of Prussia and neighbouring territory has been questioned by some academics, thereby explaining the neglect of the broader Baltic region by its Christian neighbours until the 13th century. It is argued that in seeking to develop its trade networks with Russia, the Hanseatic League opened to Baltic to foreign interests. This assertion is supported by the absence of written sources pre-Christianity regionally, as well as archaeological analysis of maritime infrastructure indicating that any mercantile activity was limited.

The Northern Crusades and the Teutonic Order
From the early 13th century the establishment of trade settlements in the Baltic began, advancing the economic interests of a powerful German, mercantile, ruling-class. Consequently, this settlement coincided with growth of the Hanseatic League, particularly north of Prussia and the growth of the Brothers of the Sword Order. This established a definitively German presence in the region, allowing for future expansion, contemporarily promoted as crusading. This was especially the case for Prussia, which scholars have contrasted to other incursions such as those into Livonia and Lithuania as the best example of conventional crusading, with religious justifications remaining central rather than political or economic motivations taking precedence.

Following their defeat in Lithuania at the Battle of Saule in 1236, the Sword Brothers, who had previously seen success in conquering Livonia and eventually Estonia (with the help of the Danes), amalgamated with the Knights of the Cross. Thus began the Teutonic Order, which retained the territory the Knights of the Cross had garnered in Prussia. Aside from ensuring a long-term German presence in Prussia, these developments did little more to rapidly alter the religious or ethnic composition of the region, due to the aforementioned concerns of Teutonic leadership with the compliant mobilisation of its subjects for military functions. Nonetheless, the inclusion of civilising measures taken by the Teutonic Order by past academics does imply some degree of Germanisation. As a consequence, the Teutonic Order's contributions include productive agrarian reforms and infrastructure construction: namely towns, roads and canals. Once again, the implementation of a feudal hierarchy and the civic notion of conscription duties are central to the Order's impact on Prussia, although whether this constitutes Germanisation is implicitly contentious.

Elaboration source robert frost

Ultimately, the Teutonic Order did not survive as a dominant force in the region, with their decline markedly accelerating with their defeat at the Battle of Tannenberg. Increasingly pressured by their Polish neighbours with the theatres of continual conflict shifting away from neighbouring lands to within their domain, the financial burden on the Order's subjects was especially taxing. As a consequence, opposition to the Order had begun with the establishment of the Lizard League in 1397, a group which notably retained a Polish element in its allegiances. Similarly, the emergent Prussian Union (Preussischer bund), comprised of various dissatisfied local estates, which later grew to oppose Teutonic rule. Over the course of 1454 the Union not only withdrew from the rule of the Order but allied themselves with the Poland, offering themselves as subjects. In doing so, the Thirteen Years' War began, resulting in the Teutonic Order's defeat. Thus, Prussia was partitioned, with the western portion being reclaimed by the Polish crown and the east remaining a largely autonomous fief. Yet, as a result, this minor state was forced to abide by Polish laws alongside their own, with local institutions enduring.

Kingdom of Prussia
Having formally crowned himself King in Prussia, Frederick III (then Frederick I of Prussia) cemented the unification of the remaining secularised possessions of the Teutonic Order with the Duchy of Brandenburg in 1701. This exacerbated geographical concerns associated with the separation of Prussian possessions, which Frederick the Great sought to remedy. By 1772, Frederick the Great had acquired the vast majority of West Prussia from Poland through a diplomatic fait accompli, backed by Russia and Austria in what was the First Partition of Poland. Thus, Frederick restored the historic Teutonic colonies to German control, bar the cities of Danzig and Thorn which remained for a short while longer in Poland's possession. Moreover, this united the region of Prussia with the remainder of the Kingdom. Notably, Frederick the Great considered the Polish to be an inferior people, underscoring the resumption of Germanisaion policies, albeit with greater vigour than previous historical occurrences. Altogether, his reforms were numerous and formative in encouraging efficient integration, with every fifth Prussian involved in the mass resettlement across Prussia at the time of his death.

Elaboration source Koch

On top of this, the resumption in the flow of German settlers to the region entailed the implementation of numerous reforms. Of these, serfdom was effectively abolished as it was under Polish standards, instead being modified to meet Prussian standards. This was also the case for the replacement of previously existing legal and bureaucratic systems in West Prussia. Finally, following partition, large-scale educational expansion occurred, with 750 schools constructed, comprehensively improving education in areas previously left untouched. Importantly, this expansion did include a preference for teachers competent in Polish, as well as German, which experts identify as indicative of the extent to which Germanisation was comparatively soft-handed at this stage. Later, following an uprising catalysed by the third and final partition of Poland, the Prussian bureaucracy responded with characteristic confiscations of local nobles' property.

Elaboration source Karin

Ducal Prussia was predominately German.

Frederick I's father, Frederick William the Great Elector, had been previously granted full sovereignty over Ducal Prussia, the eastern portion of Prussia, for his eventual support of Poland in the Second Northern War.

Under Frederick the Great's father, Frederick William, any historical records linking Prussia to the Polish crown were erased, so as to assert its independence and justify the continuance of Brandenburg-Prussia's kingdom status. The 'in' rather than 'of' in 'King in Prussia' was stipulated so as to reconcile a desire for greater political clout internationally with a desire to appease the monarch of Poland.

Bismarckian Era
While policy norms established by Frederick the Great focused upon tolerance, regarding Poles as inferior but still respecting of their cultural differences, the policy shift under Otto von Bismarck resembled a determination to eradicate non-German cultural aspects in Prussia and other formerly Polish provinces. Of particular salience in this shift was the stringent restrictions on the speaking of Polish as well as its education in schools. Polish soldiers were diffused throughout the army, so as to prevent concentration in majority-Polish regiments and Polish aristocrats had their estates forcibly bought out as part of a Colonisation Law. Overall, this disempowerment reflected not only a cultural agenda, but also a military one, due to the strategic proximity of Polish populations to the capital in Berlin. In extreme cases, when Prussian nationality could not be proven, tens of thousands of Poles were forcibly dispossessed and exiled. Whilst academics have noted the severity of this policy shift, in numerical terms its outcomes are less emphatic. Although, there is consensus among experts as to the high extent to which these policies stoked nationalism in Prussia's Polish citizens' conscience, encouraging their continued resistance to assimilation. This sentiment was reflected in the wake of the First World War, with Poland being restored to Europe as an independent nation at Germany's expense and the separation of East Prussia from the remainder of Germany.

Elaboration source Daheur

Especially in the aftermath of the formation of Germany, education in schools became a major tool in government efforts to unify various ethnic groups, albeit primarily Germanic ones, residing within the newly created state. From this, education of ethnically Polish residents in formerly Polish territory became a major focus of germanising policies.

In 1885, the state government of Prussia exhibited this extent of this sentiment when 30,000 Poles, as well as Jews, were expelled based on their retention of either Russian or Austrian citizenship. The following year, the Prussian Settlement Commission was formed by the Bismarck government, with the hope of reinvigorating German settlement, particularly in the countryside, at the expense of the Polish.

Although, policies in this period were subject to adjustment. The appointment of different chancellors, such as Leo von Caprivi, brought with it the possibility of policy change. Caprivi particularly sought to moderate the oppressive measures of his predecessors through the provision of religious exemptions from Polish language restrictions, as well as offering voluntary Polish language education. However, such reforms were met with opposition from groups such as the pan-German league and the Eastern Marches Association, forcing Caprivi's eventual resignation. By 1900, religious teaching had reverted to once again being taught solely in German. Accordingly, strikes ensued as in 1906-7 Polish students in Western Prussia sought to defend their language and culture, garnering international attention. In response to protests and objections from the imposed curriculum, corporal punishment and detention were utilised, with resistance to these germanising policies framed under various criminal charges. In addition, newspapers such as the The Torun Gazette (Gazeta Toruńska) specifically opposed the Germanisation of Polish-speaking provinces, contributing to the turbulence across the region.

edit colonisation law to expropriation law

Category:German nationalism Category:Cultural assimilation Category:German language Category:Germany–Poland relations Category:Historical linguistics Category:History of Europe Category:Political history of Germany Category:Prussian Partition Category:Poland in World War II Category:History of the Lithuanian language Category:Human rights abuses Category:Transliteration Category:Cultural history of Germany