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Technorationalism in Education
Since the dawn of technology, educators have attempted to improve learning by integrating technology into the learning process. Proponents claim technology does improve education. Kessler lists several ways, including better simulations and models, access to global learning, virtual manipulatives (which she describes as "virtual manipulators" that allow students to interactively change variables and witness different calculation outcomes), multimedia, e-books, and epistemic games where students are placed in roles like city planner, journalist or engineer. Andrade touts technology as a "force multiplier" because the teacher is no longer "the only source of help in the classroom. He adds that now, "education doesn’t stop at the end of the school day" and "students can get help and tutoring at any time" (para. 2). There are cynics who question what value, if any, is added to education outcomes, however. For example, Toyama retorts that "for primary and secondary schools that are underperforming or limited in resources, efforts to improve education should focus almost exclusively on better teachers and stronger administrations." Even after Congress "spent billions to give schools access to technology and online learning opportunities (para. 1), a 2007 report to Congress still admits to no increase or decrease in test scores by amounts "statistically different from zero" (Findings, para. 2). The No Significant Difference (NSD) web site Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) describes very early attempts to substantiate equivalent, if not improved, learning outcomes for students who received education and training via distance learning. "Researchers looked to compare student outcomes for two courses that were delivered through two different methods, thereby identifying the 'superior' method for teaching effectiveness" (What is the "no significant difference" phenomenon, para. 1). Russell, author of the book The No Significant Difference Phenomenon: A Comparative Research Annotated Bibliography on Technology for Distance Education "collected [355] research studies, from as far back as 1928, with an overwhelming number indicating no significant difference in distance learning outcomes versus face to face learning (What is the "no significant difference" phenomenon, para. 4).

Nearly 100 years and billions of dollars later, attempts to improve education with technology appear not to have produced the gains we had hoped. So how did we get here?

Dunn cites the hornbook as one of the earliest forms of technology to enter the classroom. A Wikipedia entry indicates the hornbook served as a primer for study that originated in England in 1450. Used in early childhood education, it consisted of a sheet containing the letters of the alphabet, mounted on wood, bone, leather, or stone. In 1930 the overhead projector was introduced and was "widely used by the U.S. military to train forces in World War II, and eventually spread to schools. 1940 brought the mimeograph, 1965 the filmstrip viewer, 1980 the Plato Computer, and eventually in 2010 the iPad. Dunn suggests 15 ways to use the iPad in the classroom. His ideas range from show-and-tell of distant things using media, pictures, and video; create digital stories about particular lessons; produce a short presentation in iMovie, Keynote], or [[Pages_(word processor)|Pages; or utilize Instagram to present different perspectives in science, technology, and photography. Innovation does not stop there. SMART is a company that offers education and training solutions worldwide to educators, business, and even military organizations. SMART also presents a version of the history of technology in education Shaffer_970297426