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Language Policy in Education: Bangladesh
Bangla is the mother tongue of the majority of the population and plays an important role in learning. The language of instruction in education is important as it is entrenched in the politics and systems of power, making it difficult for individuals who reside in societies where their mother tongue differs. In Bangladesh, language policy is unclear with multiple languages present in educational systems. The three prevalent languages are Bangla, English and Arabic. Early childhood education in Bangladesh begins with three main forms of education: the public education system (Bangla medium school), the English medium education system, and the Madrasah system based on religious study (Bangla, Arabic and English medium school). Language policy is decided by governments and influences the languages and function of language within communities. The Indian subcontinent came under British rule in 1608 becoming an independent state in 1947. The release of India from British colonialism led to a division of the area with Bangladesh emerging as an independent nation in 1971. Since the independence, the nation has not had a consistent strategy on language with minority languages further ignored. The lack of policies reflecting the channel of instruction has both short- and long-term implications for current and future generations. A clear framework for language policy is dependent on the social and political landscape of Bangladesh today and the inherited conditions of the past.

A language is an important tool that is used for communication in all facets of life, playing an important role in education as a mechanism for disseminating knowledge. The language policy of nations dictates the language used in institutions. Language policy is regarded as an interdisciplinary academic field and associated with government planning. The landscape of language policy and planning is heavily rooted in the 'social, political-economic and educational issues of any given entity. The implementation of language policy differs from country to country as language policy is often contingent on historical conditions.

Language policy and planning in education attempt to resolve language issues which have emerged. There is a differentiation between language policy and planning in education. Kaplan and Baldauf discuss the six stages of language planning, 'pre-planning, survey, report, policy, implementation and evaluation'. Language policy in education occurs between the stage of report writing and the formulation of policy.

In the case of Bangladesh, the culture of language is significant, and a key cause for the independence movement. The Bengali language movement was a political movement in former East Pakistan. This movement promoted the recognition of the Bengali language as a formal language in formerly Pakistan. The movement pushed for the continued use of Bangla as a medium of instruction. is the most widely used language, but the English language plays a key role in society and educationThe language policy in Bangladesh has evolved throughout the different periods, demonstrating how despite Bangla being the language of common people, it took centuries to become a language of status. Despite Bangla having a formal standing it still competes with English in being the language of instruction. But the idea of multilingualism allows for the coexistence of Bangla and English in Bangladesh.

Background
The background of Bangladesh is important in understanding the linguistic landscape of education with the sensitive history of the language rights movement. Bangladesh is a densely populated country in South Asia and is bordered by Myanmar and India. The country is the 8th most populous country with a population of around 167.8 million. The population of Bangladesh is quite ethnically and religiously homogenous, predominantly Muslim Bangla speaking individuals. Around 83% of Bangladesh is Muslim with around 98% of the population Bengali. This composition makes up the third largest ethnic group in the world. Ethnic minorities make up a small percentage of the population. These groups include the Bihari, Chakma and other ethnic groups which make up just over 1% of the population.

The history of language policy of education in Bangladesh has faced uneven developmental progress. The responses to pre-and post-independence language concerns about Bangla and English have had major impacts on shaping language policy.

History
In the establishment of independent Bangladesh, language was a key political issue. The aftermath of British colonialism had the states of India and Pakistan creating their national planning and policy. The area of now Bangladesh came under Pakistani rule and assumed status as East Pakistan. The spatial distance between the two states of Pakistan was ignored for reasons of religious affiliation. Before the partitioning of India, language policy was determined by the monarch, a royal decree, rather than an understood and democratic decision. Policies of this period followed a hierarchy which focussed on one specific language subjugating minority languages of the common people. Many nations employ a language policy which is planned to favour or disadvantage certain languages. Historically nations have used language policies to promote one specific language at the expense of others.

The state of Pakistan followed this trend and declared Urdu the national language. The government of West Pakistan placed Urdu at the top of the language hierarchy at the expense of all other languages. The Bangladeshi people rejected this language imposition. The cultural and linguistic variances between the East and West proved too great and resulted in mass protests. The Bengali language movement challenged the state of Pakistan and the administration of Urdu in now Bangladesh. Indeed, the mobilisation of students and other activists defied Pakistani forces and organised a protest on 21 February 1952. The resistance against West Pakistan resulted in the death of four students from Dhaka University. The notion of Bangla as a state language spread through Bangladesh and sparked wide political discontent. Bangla language became adopted into the state of East Pakistan in 1954 and prompted Bangladeshi nationalism. Tollefson has used the terms 'Power, state, hegemony, structure, structural constraints, class, dominance, minority' that describes how language policy has been created by different ideologies in society. This is evident in the case of the Bangla language as the movement has used power to gain control of the events.

Language of instruction
During the Pakistani regime, English was highly influential and still used with the status of a second language. Yet, the aftermath of the Bengali Liberation movement, in 1952, resulted in a decrease in national proficiency levels of English after independence. Many factors affect the choice of language of instruction, like the size and geographies of the speaking population, and the use of it in official communication. National language policies have a role in the social, technological, and economic development of a country. There have been multiple recommendations on the language policies in education. According to policymakers, employing English as a medium of instruction will advance the economic prosperity in Bangladesh. With the English language closely associated with global communications keeping English within academics is important. Although the lack of policy has meant that individuals can decide which language to learn. The language of instruction can have positive and negative impacts. For example, English as the language of education provides tools for 'upward social mobility as it has a strong influence within employment but negative impacts of English as the language of instruction are ignored. The negative impacts of English have been brushed away with the role of English itself often unclear. Language access policy has resulted in this social imbalance within the population as access to English is unequal. The urban-rural dichotomy became informally institutionalised, in direct opposition to the constitutional aims of government. In rural areas, students had fewer opportunities to learn English due to resource allocation issues. Whereas in urban areas, students receive their education in English medium schools. Thus, their levels of English proficiency are higher than that of Bangla medium students.

The Role of Bangla
Bangladeshis closely identify with their national language, and it is entrenched within most intuitions in Bangladesh. Bangla has persisted through major dialectal threats and has been consolidated in the nation's identity. The language movement was a huge success in instilling Bangla within institutional structures and language issues. Bangladesh, post-independence, implemented the Bangla language in national constitutions of government which ignored minority people. Giving Bangla its national status, it became the main form of communication both in the everyday and academic institutions. According to scholars, Hossain and Tollefson, 'this constitution replaced the previous status of English during Pakistani tenure'. Thus, English was demoted from its second language status post-independence and was replaced by Bangla.

The government-sanctioned Education Commissions discussed the role of Bangla and English in academics, agreeing that English was to remain a part of the language of education. Bangla was unable to replace every function of English, particularly in education. The role of English in the education sphere is highly contested as some policymakers favour the use of Bangla in education'. However, academic systems had not immediately employed Bangla as a universal medium of instruction. At universities, English was still the medium of instruction, reminiscent of past colonial education systems.

Bangla Medium Schools
In Bangla medium schools, English teaching is enforced through the compulsory curriculum, but most classes and teaching occur in Bangla. Most academic institutions started using Bangla as the medium of instruction. Public education has received an added educational burden teaching both in English and Bangla, whereas private education, specifically English medium schools, and private universities, has not.

Although through additive bilingualism, students can learn more languages which will influence their academic development- 'Continued development of both languages into literate domains (additive bilingualism) is a precondition for enhanced cognitive, linguistic, and academic growth'. There are many advantages of Bangla as the medium of instruction, particularly its value in developing students, 'natural intelligence, original thinking, and imagination'. The prominence of the English language overlooked the advantages of local languages and mother tongues. Scholars such as Awuor argue that 'local languages as a medium of instruction is beneficial across all levels of education.

Additive bilingualism is sometimes seen as discriminatory as it forces children from minority groups who speak languages not catered for by the legislation to take on another language as their 'mother tongue'. It doesn't consider multifaceted inequalities such as three-tiered hierarchies between (1) colonial language (2) language of nationalism and (3) minority languages. The language of nationalism refers to a culture's use of language to exercise its dominance. Studying English as an additional language is a common phenomenon found in the historical past of UK imperialism. Given the homogeneity of the nation, there is less focus on minorities and their languages. This viewpoint assumes monolinguals and contributes to 'domain shrinkage'. Domain shrinkage refers to the narrowing of social domains for which language is used.

Despite its support for Bangla, the educational commission also argued that English should remain the language of higher education pending the reform of the past colonial structures of the university. Bangla texts were not yet ready, particularly at the tertiary level, and as such, Bangla and English were used simultaneously as a medium of instruction. Students who attend Bangla – medium schools and hope to carry on their education must eventually enter English- medium instructions. When compared to students who attend English-medium schools beginning at the elementary level they are at a disadvantage. English proficiency levels are worse in state-sanctioned government and non-government schools, especially in rural schools. The use of English is not only unfair to rural children who do not have the capacity for high-quality English language teaching but is pedologically unsound. Gingrich articulates how 'When we allow children to stay trapped in bilingual programs where they do not learn English, we are destroying their economic future'.

The Role of English
In post-independent Bangladesh, the status of English has not been specified in political frameworks. Instead, the role of English is finely ignored despite its wide use in all facets of life. The English language has existed in Bangladesh since the inception of British colonialism. This colonialism accelerated the spread of English in the Indian subcontinent.

This spread of English by powerful elites of the East India Company (EIC) resulted in the establishment of English medium schools and English as a second language. The EIC was a company formed in 1600, to trade with East and Southeast Asia. The EIC participated in the East Indian spice trade. It became involved in the politics of colonialism and acted as an imperial agent from the early 18th century. The company ceased to exist in 1873, following the breakdown of the commercial monopoly in 1813.

Indeed, local elites recognised the value of the English language later employed by the British to dominate the colonial people. Colonial language policy is therefore connected to social stratification, or the categorisation of society into hierarchical groups based on class, race, caste, language group, religion etc. As local wealthy individuals received English tuition, common people went to Bangla medium schools. Scholar, Coyne highlights how countries that use colonial languages as a medium of instruction tend to have substantially higher levels of income inequality at the national level.

English Medium Schools
Nations, where English is not the native language, have seen the growth of English medium instruction at different levels of education. For example, the introduction of English medium instruction in primary education in 1986.

The disparities in language policy surrounding the medium of instruction have resulted in educational commissions aimed to rectify problems of inequality based on language. Over the years, there has been a growing attempt to broaden the teaching of English. The encouragement of English in education teaching has always been hand in hand with Bangla. It is evident that in the 'strengthening of English', the Bangladeshi government do not want to overtake Bangla. The absence of a clear language policy on forms of instruction has led to these private enterprises of English medium schools so students were able to learn and practice. Without exposure to the colonial languages, poorer children cannot learn in school. While wealthier children with early exposure to the language can transition to higher education levels easier. Deprived children will struggle as they cannot proceed through a system based on a language, they have no experience in. The growing amount of English medium schools have generated a linguistically divided population As English medium schools produce better levels of proficiency whereas Bangla medium schools have lower levels of fluency. This divisive nature of English is still present in Bangla-medium public education, as achievement in language proficiency is mediated by several factors i.e. socio-economic status, private investment and geographic location of learners.

Madrasah Medium Schools
The Madrasah system of education was influenced by the introduction of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. This education system predates the consolidation of British rule in the geographical area of Bangladesh. It was set up differently from the rest of education in Bangladesh with the medium of instruction in Bangla, Arabic and English. The main target is to teach religion and to learn the Arabic language which is carried out through Bangla and English.

Apart from studying Islamic studies, students can study other subjects, among them is English. The English language is taught in every institution including in Madrasahs. The use of English instruction has enhanced the communication of Muslim scholars. However, as madrasahs specialise in Islamic studies, the study of English is compromised. This is an obstacle to achieving a good level of proficiency in the English language.

Millions of Muslims over decades have been participating in this form of education with these religious institutions all over the world. Teaching Islamic culture in Arabic was the main objective. The Islamic and linguistic education of students in madrasahs was threatened due to the British occupation. The inequality produced proved too great for individuals and institutions.

University
The medium of instruction is optional in public universities in Bangladesh. Academic assessments are accepted in both Bangla and English. In private universities, the medium of instruction is in English, and all tasks are to be completed in English. Private universities can facilitate language teaching as curricula and materials are in English. There are regarded as extensions of English medium schools with exclusive access to English with low levels of Bangla use. Indeed, Bangla is used for casual social communication, but English is employed for academic instruction.

Implications
Bangladesh has a large English learning population, one of the largest in the world. However, it is unable to create a coherent language policy through the framework of education. The dynamic education system is still in need of a long-term language policy which will coincide with Bangla and English teaching and learning.

It is important to recognise how language encompasses variables like socio-political and economic issues. The relations of power which exist in these conditions will affect the process of teaching language and how language is attained. The relationship between these components will impact the academic ability of students as 'human relationships at the heart of schooling'. Marginalised groups are discriminated against by unequal access, wealth and opportunities which leads to higher levels of academic failure.