User:Icranth/Kalundu Mound

Kalundu Mound is an Iron Age archaeological site constructed by the Kalomo culture. It is situated on the Batoka Plateau in the southern part of Zambia, and lies outside of the town of Kalomo. The site dates to around the 12th century, although it is possible it was occupied as early as the 9th century. Kalundu Mound is one of a number of mound sites in the region which is associated with the Kalomo culture. Sites associated with the Kalomo are identified through the style of ceramics and figurines, as well as traditional burials which include burying the dead in a crouching position. . The mound itself measures 137m by 106m and reaches a height of nearly 3m off the ground, making it one of the largest and most elaborate mounds associated with Kalomo culture. While little is known about how or why these mounds were constructed, previous and ongoing excavations at the site aim to answer these questions and gain a better understanding of the Iron Age societies who lived there.

Kalomo Culture
Based on a number of mound sites and artifacts found on the Batoka Plateau, it is believed that the Kalomo were spread across this region in southern Zambia, north of the Zambezi River. Artifacts that are characteristic of the Kalomo include a style of pottery which is globular and decorated with a band of lines created by comb stamping, human and animal figurines, iron arrowheads, glass beads, and most notably, the tradition of burying their dead in a crouched position. The Kalomo were agro-pastoralists who primarily herded cattle, though they may have kept other animals such as goats or sheep. They also cultivated plants such as sorghum and pearl millet, evidence of a shift towards a more sedentary lifestyle that begins to occur in this region during the Iron Age. However, excavations at sites such as Kalundu Mound have revealed a diverse array of faunal remains, many of which are from wild species, which indicates that the Kalomo practiced hunting in addition to herding. Archaeologists have also found seed remains of plants such as wild finger millet as well as wild fruits, legumes, and nuts.

Early Excavations
In 1956, while a road was being constructed from Livingstone to Lusaka, a bulldozer cut through part of Kalundu Mound and discovered it was a deliberately constructed site, not a natural hill. Ray Inskeep, the Keeper of Archaeology at the Livingstone Museum, recognized the importance of this site and was the first archaeologist to excavate at Kalundu Mound in 1957, digging a 40m trench north-south across the mound, yielding an abundance of ceramic, as well as samples of charcoal from which he was able to create a chronology for the site using radiocarbon dating. While he was unable to finish his work before leaving his position, he had begun to identify the similarities between the many mound sites in the region, believing that there was a single culture responsible for these sites. Other objects that were uncovered by this excavation include a grindstone, iron artifacts and slag, several ostrich eggshell beads, seashell beads, and one single glass bead.

Brian Fagan, the successive Keeper of Archaeology at the Livingstone Museum, began excavation in 1960, following in Inskeep’s footsteps. Through his work, Fagan helped to establish a chronology of Iron Age sites on the Batoka Plateau using radiocarbon dates, and Kalundu Mound became an important baseline for archaeologists to establish dates for other sites in the area. Fagan believed that Kalundu mound was deliberately constructed in order to raise the site above the flood level of the flood plains, and that the Kalomo may have rotated between different mound sites in the region. Animal remains at Kalundu Mound indicate that the Kalomo kept livestock, particularly cattle, but also relied on hunting as an important means of subsistence.

-more specific about excavation methods

-stratigraphy and findings

2017 Excavations
A renewed interest in Iron Age sites in southern Zambia led Steven Goldstein to excavate at Kalundu Mound in 2017, revisiting the work of Inskeep and Fagan in order to provide a better chronology of the site using more modern and accurate dating techniques, as well as drawing conclusions about means of food production during the Iron Age in this region. Previous excavation work done by Inskeep and Fagan used charcoal samples to create radiocarbon dates establishing a chronology for the site. Based on their work, Inskeep and Fagan dated Kalundu Mound to 300-500 CE, which was then used as a baseline for sites across the region. However, radiocarbon dating technology at this time was not accurate, and much of the research conducted during the 2017 excavations involved revising the previously established chronology. Radiocarbon dating conducted on faunal and botanical remains from recent excavations reveal that the site was constructed in 1190–1410 CE, which means Kalomo occupation of the site is much later than what was previously thought. Based on the stratigraphy of the mound, it is believed that there may have been multiple periods of occupations, rather than continuous occupation.

Ceramics
Kalundu Mound is filled with tons of ceramics from all occupation periods,

Recovered tons of ceramic

Only a fraction are decorated but decoration is consistent with Kalomo decorative motifs

Comb stamping

Beads
Found 12 beads, 7 ostrich eggshell, one stone, 4 glass beads  indian ocean trade

Faunal remains
Cattle was the primary domesticate

Also possibly goat or sheep

Fagan identified chicken but this may be wild guinea fowl

Found rabbits and rodents

Evidence of hunting, remains of wild bovids such as Duiker

Archaeobotanical remains
While they were a herding society, there was also reliance on wild plants and grains such as wild finger millet, wild fruits and nuts and legumes

First archaeological evidence of millet in Zambia

Mixed subsistence, farming as well as gathering, herding and hunting

Sorghum and pearl millet