User:Ijwilliams/sandbox

New "Medical Racism in the United States" Article
I plan to create a new article on the topic of medical racism in the United States as an article on this topic does not yet exist and I believe that it warrants its own page. Listed below are the sections that I will be adding to create a solid beginning for the page that can hopefully highlight the need to add more to the discussion of the subject. I have briefly summarized what can be expected of these sections and also the sources that will be supporting them.

Lead:

The lead section will concisely introduce the topic and explain how this specific issue is relevant in society today while providing brief contextualization.

-       *Dossey, Larry. “Medical Racism.” EXPLORE 11, no. 3 (2015): 165–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2015.02.009.

History:

For the history section I hope to highlight the historical contexts and foundations that medical racism has in American society. The different ways in which minorities have been portrayed and taught about to future healthcare professionals has greatly impacted the way they treat patients. Whether doing so with explicit or implicit bias, historically, vastly differing perceptions of patients based on race has been harmful to those not of the racial/ethnic majority.

-       *Goff, Phillip Atiba, Jennifer L Eberhardt, Melissa J Williams, and Matthew Christian Jackson. “Not Yet Human: Implicit Knowledge, Historical Dehumanization, and Contemporary Consequences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94, no. 2 (2008): 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.292.

-       *Hoberman, John M. Black and Blue: The Origins and Consequences of Medical Racism / John Hoberman. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.

Factors:

In this section I will be delving a little bit deeper into the way that medical education, minority representation in medicine and depictions of people of color impact medical racism. The pre-conceived notions on which medical racism is built often have roots in the education undergone by medical professionals. I will be adding sub-sections here which will be cultural incompetency and racial depictions. Cultural incompetency will have its own subordinate sections that will be titled medical education and representation in medical field.

-       *Khan, Shujhat, and Areeb Mian. “Racism and Medical Education.” The Lancet Infectious Diseases 20, no. 9 (2020): 1009–1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30639-3.

-       *Louie, Patricia, and Rima Wilkes. “Representations of Race and Skin Tone in Medical Textbook Imagery.” Social Science & Medicine 202 (2018): 38–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.02.023.

-       *Turbes, Sandra, Erin Krebs, and Sara Axtell. “The Hidden Curriculum in Multicultural Medical Education: The Role of Case Examples.” Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 77, no.3 (Mar 2002): 209-216. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001888-200203000-00007.

-       *Goff, Phillip Atiba, Jennifer L Eberhardt, Melissa J Williams, and Matthew Christian Jackson. “Not Yet Human: Implicit Knowledge, Historical Dehumanization, and Contemporary Consequences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94, no. 2 (2008): 292–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.292.

-       *Flores, Kevin, and Gwendolyn Combs. “Minority Representation in Healthcare: Increasing the Number of Professionals through Focused Recruitment.” Hospital Topics 91, no. 2 (April 2013): 25–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00185868.2013.793556.

Black Americans:

This section will focus solely on medical racism as it pertains to black Americans and the black American experience. It will include information on the history of this concept and the impacts that it has had on black people in America. Given that there is a need to do so, I may include sub-sections to split the information up so it is more manageable.

-       *Nuriddin, Ayah, Graham Mooney, and Alexandre I. R. White. "Reckoning with Histories of Medical Racism and Violence in the USA." Lancet (London, England) 396, no. 10256 (Oct 03, 2020): 949-951. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32032-8.

-       *Hoberman, John M. Black and Blue: The Origins and Consequences of Medical Racism / John Hoberman. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.

-       *Byrd, W Michael, Linda A Clayton. “Race, Medicine, and Health Care in the United States: A Historical Survey.” Journal of the National Medical Association: Race, Medicine and Health Care 93, no. 3 (March 2001): 11S-34S.

-       *Hoffman, Kelly M., Sophie Trawalter, Jordan R. Axt, and M. Norman Oliver. “Racial Bias in Pain Assessment and Treatment Recommendations, and False Beliefs about Biological Differences between Blacks and Whites.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 113, no. 16 (April 4, 2016): 4296–4301. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516047113.

Indigenous Peoples of the Americas:

This section will attempt to mirror the section before it, however, there is a noticeable difference in information available. Based on the sources I’ve located this section will broadly discuss the way that indigenous peoples of America report instances of discrimination and the impacts that has on their health outcomes. There is also some historical information that elucidates the relationship that many indigenous peoples have with healthcare in the U.S.

-       Whitney, Eric. “Native Americans Feel Invisible in U.S. Health Care System.” NPR. National Public Radio, December 12, 2017. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2017/12/12/569910574/native-americans-feel-invisible-in-u-s-health-care-system.

-       Friedman, Misha. “For Native Americans, Health Care Is a Long, Hard Road Away.” NPR. National Public Radio, April 13, 2016. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2016/04/13/473848341/health-care-s-hard-realities-on-the-reservation-a-photo-essay.

Latinx Americans:

For this section, the experience of Latinx Americans will be considered. It will also include information on perceived instances of discrimination by Latinx Americans and some of the factors that contribute to that such as language barriers. If there is enough information to do so, I may include a sub-heading for the language barrier component.

-       *Sheppard, Vanessa B., Karen P Williams, Judy Wang, Vickie Shavers, and Jeanne S Mandelblatt. “An Examination of Factors Associated with Healthcare Discrimination in Latina Immigrants: The Role of Healthcare Relationships and Language.” Journal of the National Medical Association 106, no. 1 (2014): 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-9684(15)30066-3.

-       *Findling, Mary G., Sara N. Bleich, Logan S. Casey, Robert J. Blendon, John M. Benson, Justin M. Sayde, and Carolyn Miller. “Discrimination in the United States: Experiences of Latinos.” Health Services Research 54, no. S2 (2019): 1409–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13216.

Consequences:

In this section, the adverse health outcomes of minority populations as a result of medical racism will be discussed. I think I may be able to incorporate information from the sources listed in other sections for this section as well. I want to be able to create a more well-rounded picture here.

-       *Green, Alexander R, Dana R Carney, Daniel J Pallin, Long H Ngo, Kristal L Raymond, Lisa I Iezzoni, and Mahzarin R Banaji. “Implicit Bias among Physicians and its Prediction of Thrombolysis Decisions for Black and White Patients.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 22 (2007): 1231–1238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5.

-       *Hoberman, John M. Black and Blue: The Origins and Consequences of Medical Racism / John Hoberman. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.

Contemporary Issues:

I created this section as an open pathway for future editing. As of right now, I only plan to put information on COVID-19 here as I think that it would be fitting. However, a variety of different instances can fit in this category I’m sure especially as it is updated throughout the years.

-       *Kakani, Pragya, Amitabh Chandra, Sendhil Mullainathan, and Ziad Obermeyer. “Allocation of Covid-19 Relief Funding to Disproportionately Black Counties.” JAMA 324, no. 10 (2020): 1000–1003. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.14978.

Alleviation:

Lastly, I will be including this section to include information on how to address this issue of medical racism in the United States. There is existing literature on how society can go about changing things that warrants inclusion in the discussion of this topic.

-       *Marcelin, Jasmine R, Dawd S Siraj, Robert Victor, Shaila Kotadia, and Yvonne A Maldonado. “The Impact of Unconscious Bias in Healthcare: How to Recognize and Mitigate It.” The Journal of Infectious Diseases 220, no. Supplement_2 (September 15, 2019): S62–S73. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiz214.