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Annotated Bibliography for work on Exploitation of Women in Mass Media
MLA: Capodilupo, Christina M. “One Size Does Not Fit All: Using Variables Other Than the Thin Ideal to Understand Black Women’s Body Image.” Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, vol. 21, no. 2, Apr. 2015, pp. 268–278. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1037/a0037649.

APA: Capodilupo, C. M. (2015). One Size Does Not Fit All: Using Variables Other Than the Thin Ideal to Understand Black Women’s Body Image. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(2), 268–278. https://doi-org.echo.louisville.edu/10.1037/a0037649

Capodilupo offers important insight into the differences in media representation specifically for black women, and studies how they are affected in different ways by the way that they are exposed to underrepresentation and stereotypes. Although it is a common belief that women are exposed to thin and sexualized models that adhere to strict beauty standards, this study compares the other variables such as black self-confidence and self-awareness of racial identity to reject this generalized claim. This is important to note in comparing the effect of media objectification for black women in particular.

MLA: Collins, Rebecca. “Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media: Where Are We Now and Where Should We Go?” Sex Roles, vol. 64, no. 3–4, Feb. 2011, pp. 290–298. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5.

APA: Collins, R. (2011). Content Analysis of Gender Roles in Media: Where Are We Now and Where Should We Go? Sex Roles, 64(3–4), 290–298. https://doi-org.echo.louisville.edu/10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5

Collins highlights the disparities amongst gender representation in television shows and how the female-to-male ratio has increased in primetime television shows in recent years as opposed to the 1970s. She analyzes the effect of this within media viewers, hinting that this under-representation offers a larger variety of stereotypical characters and personalities that can have negative effects upon self-esteem and self-importance; meanwhile, this effect is heightened within those of various sexualities, ethnicities, and other self-identifying characteristics, as they are even further underrepresented. This underrepresentation combined with intensified female objectification in the media explains various trends in detrimental shifts in the development of young girls, as Collins explains through Bandura's social cognitive theory and many research studies on the topic.

MLA: Galdi, Silvia, et al. “Objectifying Media: Their Effect on Gender Role Norms and Sexual Harassment of Women.” Psychology of Women Quarterly, vol. 38, no. 3, Sept. 2014, pp. 398–413. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1177/0361684313515185.

APA: Galdi S, Maass A, Cadinu M. Objectifying Media: Their Effect on Gender Role Norms and Sexual Harassment of Women. Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2014;38(3):398-413. doi:10.1177/0361684313515185.

Galdi and Cadinu specifically analyze the aspect of sexual harassment as a factor stemming from media objectification. Utilizing various studies, they relate the accessibility of heavily stereotyped and unrealistic shaping of women in the media to the negative conclusions that women arrive to about themselves and the world around them; meanwhile, society itself also is affected in their beliefs about women and the standards they should or shouldn't adhere to. The wide variety of effects discussed in this study is essential to note when considering the potential societal results of a media that objectifies and over-sexualizes women.

MLA: Lamb, Sharon, et al. “What’s Sexy? Adolescent Girls Discuss Confidence, Danger, and Media Influence.” Gender & Education, vol. 28, no. 4, July 2016, pp. 527–545. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/09540253.2015.1107528.

APA: Lamb, S., Farmer, K. M., Kosterina, E., Lambe Sariñana, S., Plocha, A., & Randazzo, R. (2016). What’s sexy? Adolescent girls discuss confidence, danger, and media influence. Gender & Education, 28(4), 527–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2015.1107528

Lamb and other researchers with the Department of Counseling and School Psychology at the University of Massachusetts utilize guidelines outlined by the American Psychological Association to analyze the impact of media-spread sexualization upon the development of young girls. Using three diverse focus groups, they conclude that teen girls envy an appearance of 'effortless' and authentic self confidence, and often blame themselves if they aren't perceived by others as "just" sexy enough. Young girls are often blamed if they turn "too sexy too soon" as society projects this as a loss of innocence and childhood. It is increasingly difficult for the media to project a stance upon how to be sexy in a positive way, while also not encouraging a basis upon solely the 'male gaze'; this heavily influences the actions of young women and their perceptions of themselves and their peers.

MLA: Lopez, Vera, et al. “Effects of Gender, Media Influences, and Traditional Gender Role Orientation on Disordered Eating and Appearance Concerns among Latino Adolescents.” Journal of Adolescence, vol. 36, no. 4, Aug. 2013, pp. 727–736. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.05.005.

APA: Lopez, V., Corona, R., & Halfond, R. (2013). Effects of gender, media influences, and traditional gender role orientation on disordered eating and appearance concerns among Latino adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36(4), 727–736. https://doi-org.echo.louisville.edu/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.05.005

Lopez, Corona, and Halfond emphasize the societal standard of thinness and how this guideline affects Latina women in particular. Utilizing various studies on Latina exposure to this ideal and its effect upon self-image, they note the truths hidden underneath the false belief that all women are affected by this objectification equally. Not all women succumb to the pressure of being shaped into a rigid standard of beauty, and in fact, a large portion of latina women cherish their racial differences and highlight non-conformity instead. This is vital to note in engaging in a wholesome, interracial perspective, as all not women are affected equally.

MLA: McDade-Montez, Elizabeth, et al. “Sexualization in US Latina and White Girls’ Preferred Children’s Television Programs.” Sex Roles, vol. 77, no. 1–2, July 2017, pp. 1–15. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0692-0.

APA: McDade-Montez, E., Wallander, J., & Cameron, L. (2017). Sexualization in US Latina and White girls’ preferred children’s television programs. Sex Roles, 77(1–2), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0692-0

McDade-Montez, Wallander, and Cameron analyze the sexual content of 32 episodes of children's television shows popular with US Latina and White girls aged 6 to 11, finding a combined total of 770 instances of sexualization present - 72% of the time, with these being focused upon female characters. This sexualization includes sexualized clothing, sexual comments, body exposure, and verbal objectification, among many other factors; this heightened rate exemplifies the possible reasons for heightened sexual consequences in young girls, including negative self-image, self-objectification, and more sexualized attitudes. This is examined across racial boundaries, finding these impacts to be stronger within marginalized Latina girls, although both races were seen to be sexualized at similar rates.

MLA: Starr, Christine R., and Gail M. Ferguson. “Sexy Dolls, Sexy Grade-Schoolers? Media & Maternal Influences on Young Girls’ Self-Sexualization.” Sex Roles, vol. 67, no. 7–8, Oct. 2012, pp. 463–476. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1007/s11199-012-0183-x.

APA: Starr, C. R., & Ferguson, G. M. (2012). Sexy dolls, sexy grade-schoolers? Media & maternal influences on young girls’ self-sexualization. Sex Roles, 67(7–8), 463–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0183-x

Starr and Ferguson emphasize the roles that an early exposure to various forms of media, maternal religiosity, and TV mediation each play in the development of more sexualized attitudes and behaviors within young girls. They utilize results from their study conducted at Knox College's Department of Psychology, analyzing this with a social cognitive perspective, to investigate the impact of sexualized media components, found in numerous shows, commercials, and other aspects marketed to children. They conclude that this exposure correlates with elevated sexual consequences, including learning about sex at a young age, holding more sexualized attitudes, and having greater body shame and an objectified self-view.

MLA: Thompson, Kirrilly. “Because Looks Can Be Deceiving: Media Alarm and the Sexualisation of Childhood—Do We Know What We Mean?” Journal of Gender Studies, vol. 19, no. 4, Dec. 2010, pp. 395–400. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/09589236.2010.533492.

APA: Thompson, K. (2010). Because looks can be deceiving: Media alarm and the sexualisation of childhood—Do we know what we mean? Journal of Gender Studies, 19(4), 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2010.533492

Thompson, inspired by the American Psychological Association's Task Force on the Sexualisation of Girls, synthesizes Douglas' concept of 'matter out of place', the Lolita effect, and ethnographic and anthropological research to identify the heightened concern with children's exposure to media. This concern, she states, could unintentionally create other problems that could be seen as a discouragement of sexual empowerment for women and a shame for girls who develop more 'sexualized' bodies. Therefore, we need to clarify the children's interpretation of these sexualized behaviors and promote their well-being despite what images are presented before them.

Effects on society: Contribution Drafting
 

Effects on young children and adolescents
Statistically, a significant number of young children are exposed to sexualized media forms from early within their childhood; influence upon girls' self-image has been reported within girls as young as 5 or 6. According to the social cognitive theory, modeling such behaviors outlined within popular media have long-lasting effects upon the self-awareness and self-identity of young girls.

A study conducted by the Department of Psychology at Knox College Provided insight into risk factors such as media consumption hours, maternal self-objectification, maternal religiosity, and television mediation; each has been shown to affect rates of media influence and rates of self-internalization of their potential negative influence.

Effects on women of color
Support has shown that the effects of media exploitation vary for women of different ethnicities. Research has depicted that these implications often resonate beyond cultural boundaries, to cause significant differences among African American, Latina, and Asian American women. According to the American Psychological Association, when comparing one's body to the sexualized cultural ideals, this significantly impaired the ability for women of these ethnicities to regulate cognitive functions, including logical reasoning and spatial skills.

Spanish-language TV in the United States statistically projects more stereotypical roles for Latina women, often portraying them as ‘exoticized’, and ‘overly sexual’; meanwhile, more Latina youth, on average, watch more television than that of a white child. This combination projects increased rates of the acceptance of negative effects within minority women within the U.S., leading to a greater acceptance of standard gender roles and negative stereotypes projected by Latina characters. However, studies have shown that Latina women who watch more black-oriented television shows see a general increase of body acceptance over time.